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INTERNATIONAL 
LIBRARY  of  TECHNOLOGY 


A  SERIES  OF  TEXTBOOKS    FOR    PERSONS    ENGAGED    IN   THE   ENGINEERING 

PROFESSIONS     AND     TRADES     OR      FOR     THOSE     WHO     DESIRE 

INFORMATION  CONCERNING  THEM.    FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 

AND      CONTAINING      NUMEROUS      PRACTICAL 

EXAMPLES    AND    THEIR    SOLUTIONS 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 
TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 
SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING 

SWINE  BREEDING 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 

SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 

SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 

HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 

TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  CLASSES 

OF  HORSES 

HORSE  JUDGING 

HORSE  MANAGEMENT 

PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES 


r,y/.ux 


SCRANTON: 

INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY 

L23 


Swine  Houses  and  Equipment:     Copyright,  1011.  by  International  Textbook  COMPANY. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Swine:     Copyright,  1911.  by  International  Textbook  Company. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Swine  Feeding  and  Judging:     Copyright,  1911,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Swine  Breeding:     Copyright,  1911,  by  International  Textbook  Company.     Entered 

at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep:     Copyright,  1911,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Sheep  Judging  and  Breeding:     Copyright,  1911,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Sheep  Management:     Copyright,  1911,  by  International  Textbook  Company.     Entered 

at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Horse  Barns  and  Paddocks:     Copyright,  1911,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Types,  Breeds,  and   Market  Classes  of  Horses:     Copyright,   1912,  by  International 

Textbook  Company.     Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Horse  Judging:     Copyright,  1912,  by  International  Textbook  Company.     Copyright 

in  Great  Britain. 
Horse  Management:     Copyright,  1912,  by  International  Textbook  Company.     Entered 

at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 
Ponies,  Asses,  and  Mules:     Copyright,  1912,  by  International  Textbook  Company. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 


All  rights  reserved 


25S83 


PREFACE 


The  International  Library  of  Technology  is  the  outgrowth 
of  a  large  and  increasing  demand  that  has  arisen  for  the 
Reference  Libraries  of  the  International  Correspondence 
Schools  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  not  students  of  the 
Schools.  As  the  volumes  composing  this  Library  are  all 
printed  from  the  same  plates  used  in  printing  the  Reference 
Libraries  above  mentioned,  a  few  words  are  necessary 
regarding  the  scope  and  purpose  of  the  instruction  imparted 
to  the  students  of— and  the  class  of  students  taught  by— 
these  Schools,  in  order  to  afford  a  clear  understanding  of 
their  salient  and  unique  features. 

The  only  requirement  for  admission  to  any  of  the  courses 
offered  by  the  International  Correspondence  Schools,  is  that 
the  applicant  shall  be  able  to  read  the  English  language  and 
to  write  it  sufficiently  well  to  make  his  written  answers  to 
the  questions  asked  him  intelligible.  Each  course  is  com- 
plete in  itself,  and  no  textbooks  are  required  other  than 
those  prepared  by  the  Schools  for  the  particular  course 
selected.  The  students  themselves  are  from  every  class, 
trade,  and  profession  and  from  every  country:  they  are, 
almost  without  exception,  busily  engaged  in  some  vocation, 
and  can  spare  but  little  time  for  study,  and  that  usually 
outside  of  their  regular  working  hours.  The  information 
desired  is  such  as  can  be  immediately  applied  in  practice,  so 
that  the  student  may  be  enabled  to  exchange  his  present 
vocation  for  a  more  congenial  one,  or  to  rise  to  a  higher  level 
in  the  one  he  now  pursues.  Furthermore,  he  wishes  to 
obtain  a  good  working  knowledge  of  the  subjects  treated  in 
the  shortest  time  and  in  the  most  direct  manner  possible. 

iii 


IV 


PREFACE 


In  meeting  these  requirements,  we  have  produced  a  set  of 
books  that  in  many  respects,  and  particularly  in  the  general 
plan  followed,  are  absolutely  unique.  In  the  majority  of 
subjects  treated  the  knowledge  of  mathematics  required  is 
limited  to  the  simplest  principles  of  arithmetic  and  mensu- 
ration, and  in  no  case  is  any  greater  knowledge  of  mathe- 
matics needed  than  the  simplest  elementary  principles  of 
algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  with  a  thorough, 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  use  of  the  logarithmic  table. 
To  effect  this  result,  derivations  of  rules  and  formulas  are 
omitted,  but  thorough  and  complete  instructions  are  given 
regarding  how,  when,  and  under  what  circumstances  any 
particular  rule,  formula,  or  process  should  be  applied;  and 
whenever  possible  one  or  more  examples,  such  as  would  be 
likely  to  arise  in  actual  practice — together  with  their  solu- 
tions— are  given  to  illustrate  and  explain  its  application. 

In  preparing  these  textbooks,  it  has  been  our  constant 
endeavor  to  view  the  matter  from  the  student's  standpoint, 
and  to  try  and  anticipate  everything  that  would  cause  him 
trouble.  The  utmost  pains  have  been  taken  to  avoid  and 
correct  any  and  all  ambiguous  expressions — both  those  due 
to  faulty  rhetoric  and  those  due  to  insufficiency  of  statement 
or  explanation.  As  the  best  way  to  make  a  statement, 
explanation,  or  description  clear  is  to  give  a  picture  or  a 
diagram  in  connection  with  it,  illustrations  have  been  used 
almost  without  limit.  The  illustrations  have  in  all  cases 
been  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  text,  and  projec- 
tions and  sections  or  outline,  partially  shaded,  or  full-shaded 
perspectives  have  been  used,  according  to  which  will  best 
produce  the  desired  results.  Half-tones  have  been  used 
rather  sparingly,  except  in  those  cases  where  the  general 
effect  is  desired  rather  than  the  actual  details. 

It  is  obvious  that  books  prepared  along  the  lines  men- 
tioned must  not  only  be  clear  and  concise  beyond  anything 
heretofore  attempted,  but  they  must  also  possess  unequaled 
value  for  reference  purposes.  They  not  only  give  the  maxi- 
mum of  information  in  a  minimum  space,  but  this  infor- 
mation is  so  ingeniously  arranged  and  correlated,  and  the 


PREFACE  v 

indexes  arc  so  full  and  complete,  that  it  can  at  once  be  made 
available  to  the  reader.  The  numerous  examples  and  explan- 
atory remarks,  together  with  the  absence  of  long  demonstra- 
tions and  abstruse  mathematical  calculations,  are  of  great 
assistance  in  helping  one  to  select  the  proper  formula,  method, 
or  process  and  in  teaching  him  how  and  when  it  should  be  used . 

This,  the  fourth  volume  in  this  library  on  agriculture,  deals 
with  swine,  sheep,  horses,  ponies,  mules,  and  asses.  The  first 
sections  are  devoted  to  the  general  care  and  management  of 
swine,  and  will  be  found  to  be  intensely  practical;  they  were 
prepared  originally  by  one  of  the  most  successful  swine  raisers 
in  the  United  States.  Sheep  management  in  all  its  details 
follows,  and  the  treatment  in  the  volume  will  be  especially 
valuable  to  those  desiring  to  start  in  the  business  of  sheep 
raising.  Authorities  are  agreed  that  sheep  fanning  as  a  busi- 
ness in  America  has  not  reached  its  proper  development. 
Horses,  ponies,  mules,  and  asses  are  fully  treated,  ample  space 
being  devoted  to  the  several  types  and  breeds  of  the  animals 
and  to  approved  methods  dealing  with  their  feeding,  breeding, 
and  care.  Directions  are  given  for  detecting  all  important 
unsoundnesses  such  as  capped  hock,  curb,  spavins,  thoroughpin, 
sweeny,  ring  bone,  side  bone,  thrush,  etc. 

The  method  of  numbering  the  pages,  cuts,  articles,  etc.  is 
such  that  each  subject  or  part,  when  the  subject  is  divided 
into  two  or  more  parts,  is  complete  in  itself;  hence,  in  order 
to  make  the  index  intelligible,  it  was  necessary  to  give  each 
subject  or  part  a  number.  This  number  is  placed  at  the  top 
of  each  page,  on  the  headline,  opposite  the  page  number; 
and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  page  number  it  is  preceded  by 
the  printer's  section  mark  (§).  Consequently,  a  reference 
such  as  §  16,  page  26,  will  be  readily  found  by  looking  along 
the  inside  edges  of  the  headlines  until  §  16  is  found,  and  then 
through  §  16  until  page  26  is  found. 

International  Textbook  Company 


CONTENTS 


Swine  Houses  and  Equipment                            Section  Page 

Portable  Swine  Houses 27  1 

Stationary  Swine  Houses 27  7 

Accessory  Swine  Buildings 27  26 

Yards  and  Fences 27  29 

Miscellaneous  Equipment 27  32 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Swine 

Lard  Type  of  Swine    : 28  2 

Bacon  Type  of  Swine 28  3 

Berkshire  Swine 28  4 

Poland-China  Swine 28  9 

Duroc- Jersey  Swine 28  15 

Chester  White  Swine 28  18 

Mule-Foot  Swine 28  21 

Cheshire  Swine 28  24 

Small  Yorkshire  Swine 28  25 

Victoria  Swine 28  27 

Essex  Swine 28  27 

Large  Yorkshire  Swine 28  28 

Tamworth  Swine 28  30 

Hampshire  Swine 28  32 

Swine  Feeding  and  Judging 

Feeding  in  General 29  1 

Feeds  for  Swine 29  3 

Feeding  of  Swine  for  Pork  Production    .    .  29  9 

Feeding  of  Breeding  Swine 29  16 

Swine  Judging 29  18 

Score  Cards  for  Swine 29  20 

iii 


iv  CONTENTS 

Swine  Breeding                                                    Section  Page 

Origin  and  Development  of  Swine    ....  30  1 

Production  of  Pure-Bred  Swine 30  2 

Care  and  Management  of  Boars 30  7 

Care  and  Management  of  Sows -30  8 

Marking  of  Litters 30  18 

Care  of  Show  Swine 30  21 

Transportation  of  Swine 30  22 

Castration  of  Swine 30  24 

Recording  and  Registering  of  Swine ....  30  2G 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep 

Types  of  Sheep 31  1 

American  Merino  Sheep 31  G 

Delaine  Merino  Sheep 31  10 

Rambouillet  Sheep 31  12 

Southdown  Sheep 31  16 

Shropshire  Sheep 31  19 

Oxford  Down  Sheep 31  21 

Hampshire  Sheep 31  25 

Dorset  Sheep 31  28 

Cheviot  Sheep 31  30 

Suffolk  Sheep 31  32 

Lincoln  Sheep 31  36 

Leicester  Sheep 31  37 

Cotswold  Sheep 31  40 

Sheep  Judging  and  Breeding 

Catching  of  Sheep .  32  1 

Handling  of  Sheep 32  3 

Training  of  Sheep 32  5 

Examination  in  Judging  of  Sheep     ....  32  5 

Score  Cards  for  Sheep 32  18 

Scales  of  Points  and  Standards  of  Excellence  32  20 

Sheep  Breeding 32  31 

Sheep  Management 

Importance  of  Sheep  Husbandry 33  1 

Sheep  Bams 33  5 


CONTENTS  v 

Sheep  Management — Continued                        Section  Page 

Marking  of  Sheep 33  14 

Miscellaneous  Equipment 33  18 

Feeds  for  Sheep 33  28 

Selection  of  Sheep 34  1 

Care  of  Sheep 34  4 

Feeding  of  Sheep 34  6 

Docking  of  Lambs 34  14 

Castration  of  Sheep 34  16 

Dipping  of  Sheep 34  18 

Hothouse  Lambs 34  20 

Marketing  of  Sheep  and  Lambs 34  24 

Production  of  Wool 34  29 

Horse  Barns  and  Paddocks 

Requirements  for  Horse  Barns 35  1 

Horse  Barns  for  Various  Purposes    ....  35  3 

Sites  for  Horse  Barns 35  23 

Foundations  for  Horse  Barns 35  25 

Walls  for  Horse  Barns 35  27 

Roofs  for  Horse  Barns 35  37 

Floors  for  Horse  Barns 35  39 

Lighting  and  Ventilating  of  Horse  Barns    .  35  44 

Handling  Feed  and  Manure  in  Horse  Barns  35  49 

Horse  Paddocks 35  55 

Types,  Breeds,  and  Market  Classes  of  Horses 

Classification  of  Horses 36  1 

Types  of  Horses 36  5 

Arab  Horse 36  9 

Thoroughbred  Horse       36  13 

American  Saddle  Horse      36  20 

Morgan  Horse 36  25 

American  Trotter  Horse      36  29 

Orloff  Trotter  Horse 36  37 

Hackney  Horse 36  38 

French  Coach  Horse 36  43 

German  Coach  Horse 36  46 


vi  CONTENTS 

Types,  Breeds,  and  Market  Classes  of 

Horses — Continued                                      Section  Page 

Cleveland  Bay  Horse      36  49 

Yorkshire  Coach  Horse      36  50 

Pereheron  Horse      36  53 

French  Draft  Horse 36  60 

Clydesdale  Horse      36  61 

Shire  Horse      36  65 

Belgian  Horse      36  72 

Suffolk  Horse 36  74 

Market  Classes  of  Horses 36  77 

Horse  Judging 

Anatomy  in  Horse  Judging 37  1 

Score  Cards  for  Horses 37  4 

Market  Requirements  for  Horses     ....  37  7 

Examination  in  Horse  Judging 37  13 

Examination  for  Unsoundness 37  27 

Estimating  of  Age  in  Horses 37  39 

Horse  Management 

Management  of  Draft  Horses 38  3 

Management  of  Driving  and  Saddle  Horses     38  8 

Management  of  Breeding  Horses 38  11 

Management  of  Colts 39  9 

Horses  for  Show  and  Market 39  16 

Training  of  Horses 39  25 

Overheating  in  Horses 39  32 

Registration  and  Recording  of  Horses     .    .  39  34 

Ponies,  Asses,  and  Mules 

Shetland  Ponies 40  3 

Welsh  Ponies 40  14 

Bronco  Ponies      40  16 

Indian  Ponies 40  17 

Asses 40  17 

Mules 40  21 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


SWINE  HOUSES 


PORTABLE    SWINE    HOUSES 

1.  One  of  the  most  popular  plans  for  the  housing  of 
swine  is  to  keep  them  in  small,  portable  houses.  Houses  of 
this  kind  are  known  as  individual  swine  houses,  or  swine  cots. 
They  were  designed  and  originally  used  for  brood  sows  and 
their  litters,  but  they  can  be  used  as  shelters  for  any  class 
of  hogs,  if  desired.  When  used  for  the  housing  of  brood 
sows,  it  is  customary  to  keep  but  one  sow  in  each  house; 
although  in  some  houses  provision  is  made  for  two  sows. 
An  advantage  of  swine  cots  is  that  they  can  be  transported 
to  new  locations  with  little  difficulty  if  they  are  placed  on  a 
low  wagon  or  a  sled.  They  are  usually  placed  in  pasture  lots 
and  enough  space  is  left  about  each  house  to  provide  suffi- 
cient pasture  for  its  inmate  or  inmates.  A  few  of  the  most 
popular  kinds  of  swine  cots  are  described  in  the  following 
pages. 

2.  Lovejoy  House. — The  Lovejoy  house,  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  1,  is  a  type  of  portable  house  that  is  widely 
used  by  swine  raisers.  An  advantage  of  this  type  is  that  the 
houses  are  not  easily  blown  over.  Each  house  is  8  ft.  X  8  ft. 
at  the  base.  The  sloping  side  boards  are  9h  feet  in  length. 
The  frame  is  constructed  of  2"  X  4"  scantlings.  Fig.  2  shows 
the  same  house  in  somewhat  more  detail.  At  the  apex,  the 
2"  X  4"  scantlings  are  arranged  so  that  a  2-inch  air  space 

COPYRIOHTED   BY   INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK   COMPANY.        ENTERED  AT   STATIONERS'    HALL.    LONDON 

§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


27 


for  ventilation  is  left  the  full  length  of  the  house.  This  air 
space  should  be  left  open  when  the  sides  are  covered.  Above 
the  air  space  is  placed  an  inverted  trough  a,  which  is  held 
in  place  at  each  end  by  a  block  of  wood,  the  shape  and  position 
of  which  are  shown  at  b.  The  frame  is  lined  with  building 
paper  and  is  covered  both  inside  and  outside  with  matched 
flooring  or  other  similar  lumber.  The  floor  c  is  constructed 
of  common  1-inch  boards.  To  prevent  the  sows  from  crowd- 
ing the  pigs  to  the  wall  and  crushing  them,  a  2"  X  4"  scant- 
ling d  is  placed  12  inches  from  the  wall  and  9  inches  above 
the  floor  along  the  sides  and  ends.  A  door  24  in.  X  30  in.  is 
provided  at  each  end,  and  a  window  22  in.  X  28  in.  at  one 


- 
-     -'■<-■ 


PP        ' 


end.  The  window  is  hinged  at  the  top  so  that  it  will  swing 
into  the  building,  and  is  opened  and  closed  by  means  of  a 
weighted  cord  that  passes  through  a  pulley  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  house.  By  means  of  the  ventilator  in  the  roof 
and  the  windows  and  doors,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  keep  the 
house  well  ventilated  in  all  kinds  of  weather. 

These  houses  are  usually  placed  with  the  window  facing  the 
south,  as  this  position  is  the  most  favorable  for  obtaining  an 
abundance  of  sunshine  inside  the  house.  One  door,  prefer- 
ably the  south  one,  should  be  left  open  in  the  daytime, 
except  during  driving  storms,  and  it  should  not  be  closed  at 


§  27  SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


night  until  after  the  evening  feed  has  been  given  and  the 
hogs  are  settled  for  the  night. 

The  houses  should  be  painted,  and  if  many  of  them  are 
used  on  a  single  farm,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  each  one 


numbered,  as  this  will  facilitate  keeping  the  records  of  the 
hogs. 

3.  Bonham  House. — In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  light-weight, 
cheaply  constructed  type  of  portable  house,  known  as  the 
Bonham  house.  The 
house  is  5  feet  high 
in  front,  3  feet  high 
in  the  rear,  and  has  a 
floor  space  5  ft.  X  6  ft. 
The  sills  are  made  of 
2"  X  -4"  scantlings, 
and  the  frame  for  the 
sides  and  roof  is  of 
the  same  material. 
The  covering  and  flooring  are  of  1-inch  boards.  An  opening 
2  ft.  X  3  ft.  is  provided  in  the  front  for  a  doorway,  but  no 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


§  27 


door  is  used.  A  second  opening  18  in.  X  24  in.  is  fitted  with 
a  window  sash,  which  is  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  has  a  cord 
at  the  top  to  hold  it  at  any  angle  desired  when  it  is  open ;  a 

button  holds  it  in 
place  when  closed. 
The  roof  is  battened 
to  prevent  rain  from 
entering  the  house. 
It  is  desirable  that 
such  a  house  should 
be  painted  to  increase 
its  durability.  When 
used  as  a  farrowing 
house,  2"X4"  scantlings  should  be  placed  around  the  sides, 
as  described  in  Art.  2,  to  prevent  the  sows  from  crowding  the 
young  pigs  to  the  wall  and  crushing  them.  This  house  is 
designed  especially  for  use  during  warm  weather,  but  may  be 
used  in  cold  weather  by  covering  the  door  opening  with  canvas 
and  hanging  a  lighted  lantern  from  the  ceiling  to  supply  heat. 
The  house  is  made  in  sections,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  so  that 
it  can  be  taken  apart  and  moved  easily.  It  can,  however, 
be  left  intact  and  transported  on  a  wagon.  The  house  is  set 
up  by  nailing  the  sides  and  rear  end  together  and  then  setting 
the  floor  in  place,  after  which  the  front  section  and  the  roof 
are  put  in  place  and 
nailed. 


4.    Coolidge  House. 

An  inexpensive  type 

of     portable     house, 

known,    from     the 

name  of  its  designer, 

as  the  Coolidge  house, 

is   shown    in    Fig.   5. 

The  house  is  6  ft.  X  6 

ft.  at  the  base,   4  feet  high  at  the  peak,  6  inches  high  at  one 

side,  and  2\  feet  at  the  other.     The  door  is  usually  made  about 

18  in.  X  24  in.,  or  sometimes  24  in.  X  30  in.,  depending  on 


§ss 


Fig.  5 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


the  size  of  the  swine  to  be  sheltered,  and  is  hinged.  A 
hinged  trap  door  for  supplying  ventilation  is  made  in  the 
roof  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  For  ventilating  the  house 
during  inclement  weather,  when  the  doors  must  be  kept 
closed,  a  ventilating  box,  which  may  have  inside  dimensions 
of  G  in.  X  6  in.,  is  provided;  this  box  appears  in  the  illustra- 
tion at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  end  door.  The  box  extends 
from  a  point  about  6  inches  from  the  ground,  where  it  opens 
into  the  hog  house,  to  a  point  about  5  inches  above  the  peak 
of  the  roof. 

5.  Spillman  House. — In  Fig.  6  is  illustrated  the  Spillman 
swine  house.  This  i;ype  of  house  was  originated  and  is  used 
by  Prof.  W.  J.  Spillman,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 


Fig.  6 

Agriculture,  on  his  farm  in  Missouri.  Structures  of  this  kind 
are  used  for  the  protection  of  swine  from  sun  and  rain  when 
pasturing  them  in  open  fields,  and  as  farrowing  houses.  The 
house  shown  in  the  illustration  is  8  feet  long,  5  feet  wide, 
3i  feet  high  at  the  front  and  2h  feet  at  the  back;  other  dimen- 
sions can,  of  course,  be  used  if  desired.  The  framework  is 
constructed  of  2"  X  4"  scantling,  and  is  covered  on  three  sides 
with  1-inch  boards,  the  front  being  left  open  except  for  a 
board  6  inches  wide  at  the  top.  The  roof  boards  are  6  feet 
long  and  project  over  the  front  and  rear  and  about  4  inches 
over  the  sides.  The  cracks  in  the  roof  are  covered  with 
weather  strips  3  inches  wide  and  \  inch  thick.  Being  of  small 
size,  the  houses  can  be  easily  transported  from  place  to  place 
on  the  farm. 


6 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


$  27 


The  use  of  the  Spillman  house  as  a  farrowing  pen  is  more  or 
less  restricted  to  warm  or  to  mild  climates.  Some  swine 
raisers  allow  their  sows  to  farrow  in  more  protected  enclosures 
and  then  transfer  the  sows  and  litters  to  Spillman  houses 
when  the  pigs  are  about  2  weeks  old.  "When  the  sows  are 
allowed  to  farrow  in  Spillman  houses,  a  guard  should  be 
provided  around  the  sides  as  described  before,  to  prevent 
the  sows  from  crushing  the  pigs  against  the  walls.  It  is 
advisable  also  to  make  a  temporary  yard  around  the  front 
of  the  house  by  wiring  three  hurdles  together  and  setting  them 
in  front  of  the  open  side.  When  the  pigs  are  about  2  weeks 
old  one  of  the  hurdles  can  be  moved  away  from  the  house  a 
few  inches  so  that  the  pigs   can  get  through  but  the  sow 


Fig.  7 

cannot.     This  will  give   the   pigs  a  chance  to  get  plenty  of 
exercise. 

6.  Double  Portable  Houses. — In  Fig.  7  is  shown  a  group 
of  double  houses,  which,  although  portable,  are  often  placed 
on  a  foundation  of  some  kind.  Houses  of  this  type  are  used 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  single  portable  houses.  An  advan- 
tage of  the  double  house  is  that  it  can  be  built  at  a  much 
lower  cost  than  two  single  houses  having  the  same  total  floor 
area.  If  they  are  not  to  be  moved  often,  houses  of  this  type 
are  built  on  stone,  brick,  or  concrete  foundations,  but  if  they 
are  to  be  moved  often  they  are  placed  on  piers  or  blocks  of 
wood  so  that  skids  or  runners  can  be  easily  placed  under 
them.     On  account   of  the  weight,  two   pair  of   horses  will 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


usually  be  required  to  move  one  of  the  houses.  These  double 
houses  are  8  feet  wide,.  16  feet  long,  6  feet  high  in  front, 
and  4  feet  high  in  the  rear.  There  is  a  double  board  parti- 
tion separating  the  two  divisions.  The  houses,  when  used  in 
a  cold  climate,  are  lined  with  building  paper  and  are  covered 
both  inside  and  outside  with  good,  close-fitting  lumber.  The 
roofs  should  be  shingled  and  the  houses  painted. 

These  houses  are  used  both  as  shelters  for  young  swine  and 
as  farrowing  houses.  One  side  of  a  house  will  accommodate 
from  8  to  10  swine  that  are  nearly  full  grown.  When  used 
as  farrowing  houses,  2"  X  4 "  scantlings  should  be  placed 
around  the  sides  on  the  inside,  as  already  described.  Only 
one  sow  with  her  litter  should  be  placed  in  a  side  while  the 
pigs  are  small,  but  after  the  latter  are  from  3  to  4  weeks  old 
two  sows  and  their  litters  can  be  placed  in  a  side,  provided, 
of  course,  that  the  sows  are  not  quarrelsome. 


STATIONARY    SWINE    HOUSES 

7.  General-Purpose  House. — In  Fig.  8  is  shown  a  general- 
purpose  stationary  house  that  is  designed  especially  for  farms 
where  only  a  few  hogs  are  kept.     The  building  should  face 


the  south  and  stand  on  a  good  cement  or  stone  foundation. 
The  floor  may  be  of  boards,  but  concrete  will  be  better. 

The  building  is  16  feet  wide  and  24  feet  long;  it  is  divided 
into  four  compartments  approximately  6  feet  in  width  by 
partitions  3\  feet  in  height.     In  each  of  these  compartments 


8 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


§27 


there  is  a  similar  partition  about  half  way  between  the  front 
and  the  back  half  that  is  provided  with  a  doorway  for  the 
passage  of  the  swine.  This  arrangement  gives  two  divisions  of 
each  compartment  of  approximately  6  ft.  X  8  ft.  in  size.  The 
front  division  is  used  as  a  feeding  room  and  the  rear  division 
as  sleeping  quarters.  The  floors  of  the  feeding  rooms  slope 
toward  the  front  of  the  house  to  a  gutter  that  extends  the 
entire  length  of  the  building,  and  through  which  all  liquid 
manure  is  carried  from  the  pens.  This  gutter,  and  the  floors, 
if  they  are  of  concrete,  can  be  flushed  with  water,  and  the 
pens  easily  kept  clean. 

A   concrete   floor  in  the   sleeping   quarters   is   considered 
objectionable  on  account  of  its  being  cold  and  hard.     For 


Fig.  9 

this  reason  it  is  well,  when  concrete  is  the  flooring  material 
used,  to  make  a  removable  section  of  board  flooring  to  be 
placed  over  the  concrete  in  the  sleeping  quarters.  This 
section  may  be  taken  out  when  it  is  desired  to  clean  the 
quarters.  As  shown  in  the  illustration,  the  roof  extends  over 
the  sleeping  rooms  and  over  a  part  of  each  feeding  compart- 
ment. Windows  are  placed  in  the  roof  and  sides,  as  shown, 
so  that  sunshine  may  enter  the  building,  and  a  gutter  is  built 
along  the  south  slope  of  the  roof  to  prevent  rain  and  snow 
water  from  dripping  off  of  the  roof  into  the  pens.  The  front 
of  the  house  is  left  open.  The  height  of  the  sides  that  enclose 
this  open  part  is  3?  feet.  The  feed  is  poured  into  troughs 
through  openings  as  shown,  or,  if  it  is  desired,  each  pen  can 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


be  provided  with  swing  fronts  that  can  be  pushed  back  when 
the  feeder  wishes  to  put  feed  into  the  troughs.     Fig.  9  shows 


V~.^Si^' -"<;•': *^: ...-B^S"'"'-"  •" ':f  ^:: "'■'"''!' ^'""^'""'uF'' 


"V^" 


Fig.  10 


how  the  swing  front  of  a  pen  can  be  arranged.  By  lowering 
the  lever  a  the  lower  part  of  the  front  is  pushed  back  and 
the  trough  exposed.  An  upward  pull  on  the  lever  allows  the 
front  part  to  come  back  into  place. 

8.     Hillside  House. — A  good  swine  house  can  be  built  on 
a  hillside.     A  convenient  width  for  such  a  building  is  16  feet; 


Pump-± 


/8*/e" Tooting^ 
It f~— 


Trougn 


eS t£tt iqri — 


Jf'-O"  - 
Fig.   11 


»' 


the  length  can  be  any  number  of  feet  desired,  depending  on 
the   requirements.     A   general   exterior   view   of  a   four-pen 


10 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


8  27 


house  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  The  hogs  are  kept  in  the  basement, 
the  open  part  of  which  faces  the  south.  The  second  floor  is 
utilized  for  the  storage  of  grain. 

Fig.  11  illustrates  the  floor  plan  and  dimensions  of  the 
basement.  The  foundation  and  the  basement  floor  are  made 
of  concrete.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bedding  is  provided 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  lay  board  floors  over  the  cement, 
as  was  recommended  in  the  case  of  a  house  previously 
described.  In  each  end  of  the  foundation  there  are  two 
windows  2  ft.  X  3  ft.  in  size,  and  a  row  of  sash  2  feet  wide 
extends  along  the  south  side.  All  of  the  windows  are  hinged 
at  the  top  so  that  they  can  be  fastened  back.     There  are  four 


Fig.  12 

pens,  each  of  which  is  about  the  right  size  for  accommoda- 
ting a  sow  and  her  litter,  or  for  from  four  to  six  hogs  that 
are  being  fattened  for  market,  the  exact  number  depending, 
of  course,  on  the  size  of  the  hogs.  However,  if  it  is  desired 
to  use  the  house  fci'  the  accommodation  of  hogs  that  are 
being  fattened,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  the  partitions.  An 
alley  4  feet  wide  extends  behind  the  pens  along  the  north  wall. 
One  end  of  this  alley  is  used  as  a  feed  room.  In  this  part  there 
are  bins  into  which  feed  is  conducted  through  spouts  from 
larger  bins  on  the  second  floor.  A  pump  is  an  added  con- 
venience to  the  feed  room.     The  division  between  the  alley 


5  27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


11 


and  the  pens  can  be  arranged  as  a  swing  partition,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  9,  or  openings  can  be  made  in  it  through  which  feed 
may  be  poured  into  the  troughs  on  the  inside  of  the  pens,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  8.  A  stairway  2  feet  in  width  connects  the 
basement  with  the  second  floor.  The  height  of  the  concrete 
supports  at  the  front  of  the  house  is  6  feet. 

The  floor  plan  and  dimensions  of  the  second  floor  are  shown 
in  Fig.  12.  There  is  a  door  and  two  windows  in  both  the 
north  and  the  south  sides,  and  a  window  in  each  end.  Bins 
for  feed  are  provided  as  shown.      Two  of  the  bins  are  built 


■  V'W? 


m      - 


™SSFT 


— 


with  hopper  bottoms,  and  chutes  for  conveying  the  feed  to  the 
room  below.  In  addition,  there  are  two  hoppers,  each  of 
which  is  provided  with  a  chute,  into  which  feed  from  the 
bins  not  equipped  with  hopper  bottoms  can  be  placed  for 
conveyance  to  the  basement  floor.  An  alley  extends  the  full 
length  of  the  building  and  there  is  another  at  right  angles  to 
this  through  the  center,  one  end  of  the  latter  serving  as  a 
landing  for  the  stairway.  Over  a  part  of  the  space  above 
the  bins  a  floor  is  laid  to  provide  a  loft  in  which  bedding  can 
be  stored.  The  bedding,  when  desired  for  use  in  the  pens,  is 
thrown  through  the  opening  formed  by  the  stairway. 


12  SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT  §  27 

If  a  larger  building  of  this  same  type  is  desired,  one  24  feet 
in  width  and  48,  56,  or  some  other  multiple  of  8  feet  in  length 
will  be  found  to  be  convenient  and  practical.  In  a  building 
of  such  large  dimensions  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  alley 
8  feet  in  width,  the  stairs  4  feet  in  width,  and  the  basement 
7  feet  in  height.  The  bins  can  be  made  3  feet  wider  and  the 
pens  4  feet  longer  than  those  described  for  the  smaller  build- 
ings. A  structure  of  these  proportions  will  not  cost  very 
much  more  than  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  10,  but  it  will  house 
a  considerably  larger  number  of  swine. 

9.  Gregery-Farm  House.  —  An  exterior  view  of  a  prac- 
tical swine  house  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  This  type  of  house  is 
known  as  the  Gregory-farm  swine  house  because  of  the  fact 
that  it  wras  originated  and  is  used  on  the  Gregory  farms  at 
"White  Hall,  Illinois,  where  it  has  given  excellent  satisfaction. 
A  distinctive,  feature  of  this  house  is  the  scheme  for  lighting 
the  interior.  As  can  be  seen  in  the  illustration,  there  are 
two  rows  of  windows  on  one  side,  one  row  in  a  lower  shed- 
like part  and  the  other  in  an  upper  offset  part.  The  lower 
row  of  windows  admits  sunlight  to  the  front  part  of  the  house 
and  the  upper  row  provides  light  for  the  rear  part.  The 
bottom  windows  are  fastened  to  the  frames  at  the  middle 
of  each  side.  This  arrangement  makes  it  easy  to  open  or 
close  them  to  regulate  the  ventilation.  The  top  windows 
are  in  two  sections  and  are  easily  raised  or  lowered  from  the 
inside  of  the  building  by  means  of  a  pole.  The  abundance  of 
windows  makes  thorough  ventilation  possible.  A  sun  bath  a 
for  little  pigs  is  built  on  the  south  side  of  the  building.  A 
more  detailed  description  of  the  use  of  a  sun  bath  is  given 
later. 

Fig.  14  shows  the  floor  plan  and  dimensions  of  the  same 
house.  The  house  is  40  feet  long  and  27^  feet  wide.  Other 
dimensions,  of  course,  can  be  used  if  desired.  There  are  two 
rows  of  pens,  which  are  separated  by  a  driveway  that  runs 
lengthwise  of  the  building.  Each  pen  is  S  ft.  X  10  ft.  4  in. 
in  size,  and  the  driveway  is  G  feet  wide.  Removable  parti- 
tions 2  feet  10  inches  in  height  are  between  the  pens.     Swing 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


13 


doors  2  feet  in  width  admit  of  passage  into  the  pens,  and 
there  is  a  sliding  door  6  feet  in  width  at  each  end  of  the  alley. 
Posts   along  the  alley  help  to  support  the   roof.      A  shed 


12  ft.  X  20  ft.  in  size  is  provided  at  the  west  end  of  the  house. 
At  the  end  of  the  shed  are  double-swing  doors,  which  arrange- 


10  SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT  |  27 

ment  makes  possible  a  driveway  through  the  shed.  Such  a 
covered  driveway  is  convenient  for  the  loading  and  unloading 
of  swine  in  cold  or  rainy  weather. 

10.  Cold-Climate  House. — Fig.  15  shows  a  frame  swine 
house  that  is  designed  for  cold  climates.  It  is  58  feet  long, 
24  feet  wide,  12  feet  high  at  the  ridge,  and  6  feet  high  at  the 
sides.  As  this  house  is  designed  for  a  cold  climate,  the  frame 
is  lined  with  building  paper  and  sheathed  on  the  inside  with 
good,  close-fitting  boards.  The  pens  at  the  outside  of  the 
building  are  used  as  feeding  floors.  They  are  8  ft.  X  10  ft. 
in  size,  and  have  a  concrete  floor  that  slopes  to  a  gutter  near 
the  building.  Most  of  the  manure  and  the  dirt  caused  by 
feeding  the  hogs  will  be  found  in  these  outside  pens,  which 
can  be  flushed  with  water  and  thus  kept  clean. 

The  floor  plan  of  the  house  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  There 
is  an  alley  8  feet  wide  through  the  middle,  lengthwise  of  the 
building,  two  feed  rooms  8  ft.  X  10  ft.  at  one  end  of  the 
house,  and  six  pens  8  ft.  X  8  ft.  on  each  side  of  the  alley. 
Swing  gates  are  provided  between  the  alley  and  the  pens, 
and  each  pen  is  provided  with  an  outside  door  and  window. 
The  doors  swing  outwards  and  the  windows  are  hung  on 
bolts  at  the  middle  on  both  sides.  The  inside  pens  are 
generally  used  as  sleeping  rooms,  and  when  so  used  a  part 
of  each  is  provided  with  a  portable  board  floor  above  the 
concrete. 

If  it  is  found  desirable,  during  very  cold  weather,  to  use 
a  part  of  the  space  on  the  inside  as  feeding  floors,  a  con- 
venient arrangement  can  be  made  by  removing  alternate 
partitions  and  using  a  part  of  each  of  the  large  pens  thus 
made  as  a  feeding  floor,  and  the  other  part  as  a  sleeping  place 
for  the  hogs.  The  portable  wooden  floors  should,  of  course, 
be  removed  from  the  parts  used  as  feeding  floors.  When  the 
feeding  is  done  inside  of  the  buildings,  as  just  described, 
the  work  can  be  facilitated  by  providing  swing  partitions. 
The  house  is  ventilated  by  means  of  6"  X  6"  bottomless 
boxes  that  extend  from  within  a  few  inches  of  the  floor  in 
each  pen  to  about  a  foot  above  the  roof. 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


17 


If  a  house  of  this  kind  is  used  for  hogs  that  are  being 
fattened  for  market,  the  partitions  between  the  outside  pens 


Fig.  17 

should  be  removed  and  the  hogs  allowed  the  whole  length  of 
the  enclosure  as  a  runway  and  feeding  floor. 


:mhYy  •-,;;  H      m      t, ,- ZZT3 — >■■■  "'Q' 


T 


i£ 


lit 


I 


_o= 


\ 


•South  x 

Fig.  18 

11.     Mild-Climate  House. — Fig.    17  shows  an  end  and  a 
side  view  of  a  swine  house  that  is  suitable  for  a  mild  climate. 

243—3 


IS 


SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


S  l>7 


This  type  of  house  is  in  use  on  the  experimental  farm  of  the 
Maryland  Agricultural  College,  and  has  been  found  satis- 
factory for  the  climatic  conditions  of  that  state.  In  a  house 
of  this  kind,  the  front  should  be  made  to  face  the  south  so 
that  an  abundance  of  sunshine  may  enter  the  pens  through 
the  openings.  The  door  on  the  side  near  the  front  is  used 
as  a  passageway  for  the  attendants  that  care  for  the  swine, 
and   the  double  door  farther   back    opens   into   a  driveway 

along  which  a  cart 
can  be  driven  when 
manure  is  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  house. 
In  Fig.  IS  is  shown 
the  floor  plan  of  the 
same  house.  The 
floor  dimensions  of 
the  house  are  30  ft. 
X  40  ft. ;  the  passage- 
way along  the  south 
side  is  0  feet  wide. 
and  the  feeding  floor, 
driveway,  and  sleep- 
ing floors  are  each  8 
feet  wide.  The  feed 
bins  along  the  pas- 
sageway are  1  foot 
wide  at  the  bottom, 
and  2  feet  at  the 
widest  part,  which  is 
3  feet  above  the  floor.  The  cover  of  the  feed  bin  slants  toward 
the  wall  to  a  height  of  1  foot  above  the  widest  part.  Gates  are 
provided  from  one  pen  to  another  along  the  driveway.  These 
are  kept  closed  except  when  the  pens  are  being  cleaned.  The 
floor  is  of  concrete  and  in  both  feeding  and  sleeping  pens  slants 
slightly  toward  the  driveway,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  cleaning 
of  the  house.  Portable  board  floors  are  used  above  the  concrete 
in  the  sleeping  quarters.  There  are  doors  from  each  pen  along 
the  north  side  of  the  house  that  open  into  runways  and  yards. 


§  27  SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT  19 

The  feeding  troughs  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  19,  which  shows  a 
view  through  the  passageway  of  the  house.  In  front  of  each 
trough  is  a  swing  partition,  which  is  pushed  back  when  the 
feed  is  being  placed  in  the  troughs.  The  feed  bins  along  the 
south  wall  can  be  seen  in  this  view. 

In  Fig.  20  is  shown  a  sectional  view  across  the  house  on  the 
line  A-B,  Fig.  IS.  The  feed  bin,  passageway,  swing  partition, 
feeding  floor,  driveway,  sleeping  floor,  and  doors  between 
the  pens  can  be  plainly  seen.     This  house,  being  designed  for 


<5ecf/on  A '-& 
Fig.  20 


*<>^.-v-;.:;vtf:;o;i:.::p.-;-:(i 


o. ■;»• 


a  mild  climate,  is  not  sheathed  on  the  inside,  and  is  covered 
by  only  one  thickness  of  boards. 

12.  Illinois  Experiment  Station  House.— In  Fig.  21  is 
shown  an  exterior  view  of  a  swine  house  that  is  designed  for 
service  and  convenience  regardless  of  expense.  This  type  of 
house  is  used  on  the  experiment  station  farm  of  the  University 
of  Illinois.  The  floor  plan  of  the  house  and  yards  is  shown 
in  Fig.  22.  The  house  illustrated  is  30  feet  wide  and  120  feet 
long;  the  yards  are  of  the  same  length  as  the  house  but  can 
be  made  any  width  desired.  The  house  faces  the  south, 
because  a  southern  exposure  for  the  side  containing  the 
windows  is  preferable  to  all  others.     There  are  two  rows  of 


Norffi 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


21 


pens  extending  lengthwise  of  the  building  and  these  rows 
are  separated  by  an  alley  8  feet  wide.  Each  pen  is  10  ft. 
X  11  ft.  in  size.  At  the  east  end  of  the  building  are  located 
boar  pens  a  and  b,  feed  bins,  office,  scales,  etc.  Each  inside 
pen  opens  into  one  on  the  outside  that  is  used  as  a  runway 
for  the  hogs.  The  equipment  of  the  inside  pens  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  23,  which  shows  an  interior  view  of  the  house.  The 
floors  and  feeding  troughs  are  of  concrete.  The  pens  are 
enclosed  with  a  galvanized  woven-wire  fence  supported  on 
iron  posts  and  iron  pipes.  The  front  of  each  pen  is  made 
to    swing   so   that   the   troughs   can    be   filled   without   the 


Fig.  23 

attendant  going  into  the  pens.  A  portable  board  platform 
is  placed  in  the  corner  of  each  pen  diagonally  across  from 
the  gate,  to  be  used  by  the  swine  as  a  sleeping  floor. 

In  the  planning  of  this  building,  special  care  was  taken  to 
arrange  the  windows  so  that  during  the  winter  months,  when 
the  days  are  short  and  warmth  is  needed  in  the  hog  house, 
a  maximum  amount  of  sunlight  might  fall  into  the  pens. 
The  sunshine  passing  through  the  lower  windows  falls  on  the 
pens  on  the  south  side,  and  that  through  the  upper  windows 
on  the  pens  on  the  north  side.  In  this  way  the  house  is  kept 
much  warmer  than  would  be  the  case  if  no  such  provision 
were  made,  and  on  this  account  the  sows  that  farrow  early 


g  27  SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT  23 

in  the  season   are   kept    sufficiently  warm  without   artificial 
heat. 

The  total  cost  of  this  house  with  all  the  accessories  was 
as  follows: 

Foundation,  tile  drain,  floor,  and  chimney  $0-19.25 

Lumber  and  windows 639.70 

Iron  posts,  gates,  panels,  and  fenders..  .  .  244.80 

Hardware 53.05 

Paint  and  painting  (two  coats) 54.00    ' 

Labor 290.00 

Tar-and-gravel  roof 79.15 

Scales 100.00 

Total S2.110.55 

13.  Circular  Swine  House. — In  Fig.  21  is  illustrated  the 
floor  plan  of  a  circular  swine  house  and  the  ground  plan  of  the 
pasture  lots  surrounding  it.  This  type  of  house  has  many 
desirable  features,  particularly  for  the  raising  of  pure-bred 
swine,  but  is  a  comparatively  expensive  building  to  construct. 
Such  a  building  can  be  used  for  housing  the  various  classes 
of  swine ;  but  it  is  especially  well  adapted  for  the  housing  of 
sows  at  farrowing  time  and  for  the  showing  and  public  sale  of 
breeding  stock. 

The  plot  of  ground  that  contains  the  house  and  yards  is 
192  feet  square.  The  house  is  80  feet  in  diameter.  The  pens 
are  arranged  in  a  circle  around  the  outer  part  of  the  building, 
each  pen  being  10  ft.  X  11  ft.  in  size,  as  measured  between 
two  corresponding  central  points  in  each  opposite  side.  This 
circle  of  pens  surrounds  a  circular  arena  that  can  be  used  for 
a  variety  of  purposes,  such  as  for  a  sale  ring,  for  a  place  for 
the  storing  of  feed,  or  for  a  driveway.  The  troughs  for  feeding 
the  swine  are  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  pens  next  to  the 
arena.  Feeding  is  done  by  driving  a  loaded  truck  around  the 
area,  the  feed  being  distributed  to  the  pens  en  route,  or  a  feed 
carrier  can  be  installed,  if  desired.  The  wall  at  the  outer 
side  of  each  pen  is  provided  with  a  door  that  opens  into  a 
small  pasture  lot;  each  of  these  lots  contains  approximately 


24 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


§27 


1,500  square  feet,  except  the  two  adjoining  the  roadway, 
which  are  a  little  larger.  The  roadway  is  12  feet  wide  and 
leads  to  a  doorway  in  the  barn  that  is  provided  with  double 
doors. 

Fig.  25  shows  a  sectional  view  and  the  front  elevation  of 
the  circular  house.  In  the  sectional  view  is  shown  the 
dimensions  of  the  central  column  and  the  posts.  The 
central  column  is  of  cast  iron  and  the  remaining  frame  stuff 
can  be  of  the  same  material  or  of  wood,  as  desired.  The  roof 
is  trussed  as  shown.     The  part  of  the  house  in  which  the  pens 


are  located  is  built  around  the  central  part  in  the  form  of  a 
lean-to.  In  the  elevation  is  shown  the  general  exterior 
appearance  of  the  house,  with  dimensions. 

14.     Open-Front  Shed  and  Accessory  Feeding  Platform. — In 

the  fattening  of  cattle,  particularly  if  they  are  fed  much  corn, 
considerable  feed  passes  through  the  digestive  tract  and  out 
with  the  droppings.  To  utilize  this  feed,  which  would  other- 
wise be  wasted,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  have  hogs  "  follow" 
the  cattle — that  is,  to  keep  them  in  the  same  enclosure  in  order 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


25 


that  they  may  get  the  feed  in  the  droppings.  When  hogs  are 
kept  in  this  way,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  an  open-front 
shed,  such  as  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  20.     This  shed  is 


Fig.  26 

built  so  that  the  hogs  have  free  access  to  the  enclosure,  but 
the  cattle  do  not.  The  shed  illustrated  is  1G  feet  wide,  32  feet 
long,  6  feet  high  at  the  rear,  and  10  feet  high  at  the  front. 
Posts  set  3  feet  deep  in  the  ground  are  used  in  the  framing; 
to  these,  scantlings  are  nailed,  and  over  this  frame  boards 
1  inch  in  thickness  are  placed.  The  roof  and  sides  are  well 
battened.  If  the  shed  is  to  be  used  in  particularly  cold 
climates,  it  is  advisable  to  board  the  shed  on  the  inside,  thus 
making  a  double  wall.  The  front  is  boarded  to  within  4  feet 
of  the  ground.  Such  a  shed  will  need  no  floor  other  than  the 
earth.  The  building  should  face  the  south,  when  possible, 
so  that  plenty  of  sunshine  may  get  into  the  pen  through  the 
windows  in  front. 


Fig.  27 


In  the  same  yard  with  such  an  open-front  shed  there  should 
be  a  feeding  platform  where  the  hogs  can  be  fed  by  them- 
selves without  being  molested  by  the  cattle.     Fig.  27  illus- 


26 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


§  27 


trates  a  platform  of  this  kind.  It  is  of  concrete  and  slopes 
slightly  to  one  side  so  that  it  can  be  flushed  with  water  and 
kept  clean.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  fence  that  has  rails  of 
a  sufficient  height  to  prevent  the  cattle  from  entering  the 
enclosure  but  under  which  the  swine  can  pass.  A  trough  is 
arranged  at  one  side  near  the  fence. 

15.  Brush-Covered  Shed. — For  use  in  hot  climates,  or 
during  the  hot  months  in  temperate  climates,  a  satisfactory 
shelter  for  swine  can  be  made  by  using  brush  to  cover  scant- 
lings that  are  held  up  by  posts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  28.  The 
posts  at  the  corners  are  3  feet  above  ground  and  those  in  the 


*■■  *m 


Fig.  28 

center  are  4£  feet.  Scantlings  are  laid  across  the  posts,  and 
brush  with  green  leaves  on  it  is  piled  on  top.  The  brush  can 
be  renewed  as  often  as  is  desired.  A  brush-covered  shed  of 
this  kind  will  protect  hogs  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  will  let  air  through.  During  a  heavy 
rain,  water  will  percolate  through  the  roof,  but  this  is  an 
advantage,  as  it  will  keep  down  the  dust  that  might  other- 
wise cause  coughing  among  the  hogs.  If  these  sheds  are 
used  in  the  same  pasture  with  other  houses,  it  will  be  found 
that  whenever  the  weather  turns  cold  the  hogs  will  leave  the 
shed  and  seek  the  houses. 


ACCESSORY   SWINE   BUILDINGS 

16.  Headquarters. — "When  a  farmer  is  engaged  in  breeding 
and  feeding  swine  extensively  he  will  have  need  of  some  sort 
of  headquarters  for  the  herdsman  and  attendants.  These 
headquarters  may  be  in  a  building  by  themselves  or  they  may 


§  27  SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT  27 

occupy  a  part  of  some  other  building,  just  as  the  farmer  sees 
fit.  There  should  be  a  room  that  can  be  used  as  an  office, 
where  all  correspondence,  records,  and  memoranda  pertain- 
ing to  the  business  can  be  cared  for.  Adjoining  the  office, 
sleeping  rooms  for  the  herdsman  and  attendants  are  often 
provided,  so  that  help  will  be  at  hand  in  case  of  emergency. 

17.  Feed  Room. — A  feed  room  where  the  feed  for  the 
hogs  can  be  kept  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  for 
hog  raising.  This  room,  like  the  headquarters,  may  be  cither 
a  separate  building  or  a  part  of  another  building.  In  a 
number  of  the  types  of  hog  houses  the  feed  room  can  be  placed 
on  the  floor  above  the  one  where  the  hogs  are  fed.  Such  an 
arrangement  is  an  advantageous  one,  as  the  feed  can  then 
be  kept  in  bins  that  are  provided  with  chutes  through  which 
the  feed  is  conveyed  to  the  feeding  floors  below.  One  thing 
that  should  not  be  neglected  in  planning  a  feed  room  is  some 
source  of  water  supply,  as  most  feed  for  hogs  is  prepared  by 
mixing  it  with  water.  Either  a  cistern  or  a  well  should  be 
at  hand,  or  a  pipe  line  from  a  pressure  system  should  be 
provided. 

18.  Farrowing  Pen,  House,  and  Box. — Every  swine 
breeder  should  have  either  a  farrowing  pen  in  his  piggery  or 
a  small  farrowing  house  adjoining  it  where  a  sow  can  be 
placed  when  she  is  about  to  give  birth  to  young.  A  con- 
venient size  for  a  farrowing  pen  is  8  ft.  X  8  ft.  A  2"  X  4" 
scantling  should  be  placed  on  all  sides  of  the  pen  as  previously 
described,  to  prevent  the  sow  from  crowding  the  pigs  to  the 
wall.  •  In  a  cold  climate,  if  the  sow  farrows  early  in  the  spring, 
artificial  heat  should  be  provided  to  keep  the  sow  and  litter 
comfortable.  A  stove  in  the  same  room  with  the  pen,  or, 
under  some  conditions,  a  lighted  lantern  hung  in  the  pen  will 
be  found  satisfactory.  The  farrowing  house  can  be  of  any 
size  desired,  but  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  pen  for  the  sow 
about  8  ft.  X  8  ft.  in  size.  This  house  can  be  heated  in  the 
same  way  recommended  for  a  farrowing  pen.  A  steam 
radiator  connected  with  the  boiler  used  for  heating  water 
about  the  barn   has  been  found  convenient   for  heating  a 


28 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


§27 


farrowing  house.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  in  this  house  a 
lamp,  table,  and  chair  for  the  use  of  an  attendant,  who  should 
be  on  hand  during  the  farrowing. 


Fig.  29 

19.  If  the  sow  that  is  about  to  give  birth  to  young  is 
inclined  to  be  cross  or  abnormally  restless,  she  should  be 
placed  in  a  farrowing  box,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  29.  In 
this  box  she  can  stand  up  or  lie  down  but  cannot  turn  around. 
The  bottom  is  4  feet  wide  and  the  top  2  feet;  the  top  of  the 
hinged  cover  a  is  about  9  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

The  height  of  the  box 
will  depend  somewhat 
on  whether  a  large  or  a 
small  breed  of  swine  is 
raised  on  the  farm.  As 
an  average,  2h  feet  is  a 
good  height.  The  sow 
is  prevented  from  get- 
ting out  of  the  box  by 
slats  on  the  top  and 
ends  that  are  arranged 
as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. In  a  farrowing 
box  thus  arranged  there 
are  two  12-inch  spaces 
FlG-  30  the   length   of  the    box 

in    which  the  new-born    pigs    can    stay   without    danger   of 
being  crushed  by  the  mother.      The  sow  is  left  in  the  far- 


§  27  SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT  29 

rowing  box  about  two  or  three  days  after  the  litter  has  been 
farrowed.  During  this  time  she  should  be  turned  loose  for  a 
short  time  each  day  for  exercise. 

20.  Sun  Bath  for  Young  Pigs. — Adjoining  the  regular 
swine  building  or  the  farrowing  house  a  small  glass-covered 
lean-to  similar  to  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  30  should  be 
built.  The  roof  is  of  a  glass  sash  about  2  ft.  X  4  ft.  or 
2  ft.  X  6  ft. ;  it  is  placed  slantwise,  on  walls  about  H  or  2  feet 
high.  A  circular  hole  about  4  inches  in  diameter  is  made 
in  each  side  of  the  house  for  ventilation.  The  floors  are 
of  boards,  over  which  is  scattered  fine-cut  straw  or  chaff. 
As  soon  as  possible  after  the  new-born  pigs  have  nursed  they 
should  be  placed  in  the  sunshine  underneath  the  glass  and 
left  there  for  an  hour  or  so.  This  lying  in  bright  sunshine 
underneath  glass  is  very  invigorating  to  young  pigs,  especially 
in  cold  weather. 


YARDS   AND   FENCES 

21.  The  yards  used  for  swine  are  of  three  general  kinds: 
pasture  fields  and  lots,  barren  lots,  and  small  enclosures 
commonly  called  pens,  or  sties.  These  yards  are  used  in 
various  ways  by  swine  raisers.  Pasture  fields  are  relatively 
large  areas  that  are  used  either  for  the  pasturing  of  a  large 
number  of  swine  or,  more  frequently,  for  the  pasturing  of 
swine  with  other  livestock ;  pasture  lots  are  smaller  areas  than 
fields  and  are  used,  as  a  rule,  for  the  pasturing  of  swine  by 
themselves.  Barren  lots  are  small  enclosed  areas  devoid  of 
herbage  that  are  used  for  confining  swine  at  such  times  as 
it  is  desired  to  keep  them  off  of  the  pastures.  Many  swine 
raisers  feed,  water,  and  shelter  their  swine  in  small  barren 
lots  near  or  adjoining  the  pastures.  The  pens,  or  sties,  the 
smallest  of  the  yards  for  swine,  are  usually  used  in  connec- 
tion with  a  hog  house  and  are  intended  to  give  the  animals 
that  are  kept  in  the  latter  a  place  in  which  to  get  fresh 
air  and  exercise.  Formerly,  hogs  were  fattened  for  market 
in  such  enclosures,  but  this  practice  is  becoming  obsolete. 


30 


SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


§  27 


For  the  pastures  and  barren  lots,  woven-wire  fences  are 
satisfactory.  Such  fences  are  less  expensive  than  wooden 
ones  and  will  confine  the  hogs  in  the  enclosures  just  as  well. 


Fig.  31 

Where  only  hogs  are  kept  in  the  lots,  the  height  of  the  fences 
need  not  be  more  than  from  30  to  32  inches.  It  is  a  good 
plan,  when  making  a  fence  of  this  kind,  to  stretch  a  strand 
of  barbed  wire  about  h  inch  above  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
fastening  it  to  each  post  with  a  wire  staple,  and  then  above 
this  a  strip  of  30-inch  or  32-inch  woven-wire  fencing,  leaving 
a  space  of  about  1  inch  between  the  bottom  of  the  woven  wire 
and  the  barbed  wire.  A  section  of  a  fence  made  in  this  way 
is  shown  in  Fig.  31.  The  purpose  of  the  barbed  wire  is  to 
prevent  the  hogs  from  rooting  their  way  underneath  the  fence. 
In  pastures  where  cattle  or  horses  are  kept  with  hogs,  the 
height  of  the  fence  should  be  about  52  inches.  An  econom- 
ical fence  for  such  a  pasture  can  be  built  by  stretching  a 
strand  of  barbed  wire  just  above  the  ground,  as  already 
described,   then   above   this   a    strip   of   30-inch    woven-wire 


*- 




— 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^§ 

:-:-'.-:-: 

— .    -— — fer-i  - ■■-  -  --7 ---vs-t^-   .          »--- 

[--iW— -,;  -  iv-i'-v-  S  -     -  ->.-_-.~,  jT^  -  rj 

Fig.  32 


fencing,  and  still  above  this  two  strands  of  barbed  wire, 
one  being  placed  6  inches  and  the  other  1G  inches  above  the 
woven  wire.     A  section  of  such  fence  is  shown  in  Fig.  32. 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


31 


For  the  outdoor  pens,  or  sties,  tightly  boarded  fences  from 
30  to  36  inches  in  height  are  the  most  satisfactory.     Woven 


wire  for  such  fences  is  out  of  the  question,  as  the  length  of 
the  sides  is  too  short  to  permit  of  convenient  stretching  of 
the  wire. 

It  is  often  desired  to  enclose  hog  lots  or  small  pasture  fields 
by  a  portable  fence.  For  this  purpose  one  made  of  wood 
is  more  satisfactory  than  one  of  woven  wire.  A  good 
portable  fence  can  be  made  of  panels  of  fencing  fastened 
to  posts  driven  into  the  ground.  A  convenient  panel  is 
made  of  four  1"  X  6"  boards  16  feet  in  length,  the  four 
boards  being  nailed  together  by  cleats,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33. 
A  3-inch  space  is  left  between  the  two  bottom  boards,  and 
•l-inch  spaces  between  the  others.  Each  panel  is  therefore 
35  inches  high,  which  is  a  practical  height  of  fence  for  the 
enclosing  of  hog  yards.  In  setting  a  fence  made  of  these 
panels,  holes  about  12  inches  deep  are  dug  in  the  earth  at 
intervals  of  16  feet  and  in  these  are  driven  posts  sharpened 
at  one  end ;  about  24  inches  of  the  post  should  be  below 
ground  when  the  holes  are  filled.  To  these  posts  the  panels 
of  fence  are  fastened  with  heavy  wire,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3  I. 
A  stout  stake  driven  into  the  ground  at  the  middle  of  the 


M 


£ 


* 


— 1  I—  .  - 


.%.  ',■•  ^Mmr"*!/ 


Fig.  34 


V/ew 


panel,  and  the  panel  wired  to  this  stake,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, is  an  added  protection  for  keeping  the  fences  in  place. 


32 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


27 


MISCELLANEOUS    EQUIPMENT 

22.     Feeding  Utensils. — Troughs  or  other  feeding  vessels 
for  water  and  liquid  feed  are  needed  in  enclosures  in  which 

swine  are  fed.  Of  these 
there  are  many  kinds  in 
use,  some  of  which  are 
convenient  and  sanitary ; 
others  are  cumbersome 
to  handle  and  difficult 
to  clean.  In  Fig.  35  is 
shown  one  of  the  most 
Fig.  35  convenient,    sanitary, 

and  durable  feeding  vessels  on  the  market.  It  is  made  of  iron 
and  is  divided  into  compartments  by  partitions  and  heavy  iron 
rods.  The  liquid  is  poured  into  the  hopper  at  the  center,  and 
about  an  equal  quantity  passes  to  each  of  the  eight  compart- 
ments. This  vessel  accommodates  eight  hogs  of  any  size  with- 
out crowding.     It  weighs  about  120  pounds,  and  can  be  over- 


Fig.  36 

turned  easily  when  it  is  desired  to  remove  dirt  from  the  com- 
partments, but  at  the  same  time  it  is  heavy  enough  to  prevent 


§27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


33 


s*f 


Fig.  37 


the  hogs  from  moving  it.  A  vessel  of  this  kind  is  not  easily 
broken  or  worn  out,  and  is  not  expensive,  considering  its 
usefulness.  The  cost 
is  about  $4.80  each. 

23.  In  Fig.  36  is 
shown  a  convenient 
outfit  and  method 
for  the  feeding  of 
swine  when  a  vessel 
such  as  the  one  just 
described  is  used.  It  is  placed  near  a  low  fence  and  the  feed 
or  water  is  hauled  as  near  to  it  as  possible  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  fence.  Then  by  means  of  a  dipper  with  a  long 
handle,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  the  liquid  is  transferred 
to  the  vessel.  This  method  of  feeding  prevents  the  hogs 
from  crowding  and  jostling  the  attendant. 

24.  Wooden  troughs  are  used  extensively  by  swine 
raisers,  although  they  are  without  doubt  the  most  unsatis- 
factory type  of  drinking  and  feeding  vessels  used  on  farms. 
They  are  difficult  to  keep  clean,  are  easily  broken,  and  it  is 
almost   impossible   to   prevent   the   hogs   from   getting  their 


IS 


"^ 


feet  in  them  while  drinking.     In   Figs.   37,   38,   and  39  are 
shown  some  of  the  common  types  in  use.     Fig.  37  illustrates 
•iw\— 4 


34  SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT  g  27 

a  V-shaped  trough  made  of  2-inch  plank.     The  -  :tend 

several  inches  beyond  the  sides,  so  that  it  is  rather  difficult 
for  the  hogs  to  overturn  the  trough.  The  crosspieces,  which 
are  12  inches  apart,  prevent  the  hogs  from  lying  in  the  trough, 
but  they  do  not  prevent  them  from  getting  their  feet  in  it. 
In  Fig.  3S  is  illustrated  an  inexpensive  trough  made  by  nail- 
ing ends  and  crosspieces  to  a  section  of  a  hollow  log.  Such 
a  trough,  provided  the  log  portion  is  of  solid  wood,  can  often 
be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  feeding  vessel  as  well  as 
a  V-shaped  trough.  For  young  pigs,  a  flat-bottomed  trough 
like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  39  is  often  used.  It  is  12  inches 
wide  and  4  inches  deep.  Crosspieces  are  used  the  same  as 
in  the  other  types  shown. 


^c^^- 


Fig.  39 

25.  Concrete  troughs,  unless  connected  with  a  sewer  or 
drain,  are  not  very  satisfactory.  Large  portable  concrete 
troughs,  although  durable,  are  so  heavy  that  it  is  incon- 
venient to  turn  them  over  when  cleaning  them.  Stationary 
concrete  troughs  that  are  connected  with  a  sewer  or  drain 
are  often  used  in  expensive  hog  houses;  if  arranged  so  that 
they  can  be  cleaned  by  flushing  them  with  water  from  a  hose 
they  are  satisfactory.  Small  portable  concrete  troughs  are 
sometimes  used  where  but  one  animal  is  kept.  They  are 
round  on  the  bottom,  about  4  inches  in  depth,  and  usually 
from  1  foot  to  H  feet  in  width  across  the  top.  Such  a 
trough  can  be  tipped  over  easily  when  being  cleaned. 

26.  A  combined  feed  hopper  and  trough  for  dry  feed, 
such  as  corn  meal  and  shorts,  can  often  be  used  to  advantage 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


35 


in  the  feeding  of  swine.  In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  type  that  has 
given  good  service.  The  bottom  part,  or  trough,  a  is  4  inches 
deep,  18  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  24  inches  wide  at 
the  top,  and  10  feet  long.  It  is  protected  by  a  hinged  cover, 
which  is  kept  closed  when  the  trough  is  not  in  use.  The 
hopper  part  is  24  inches  high,  24  inches  at  its  greatest  width, 
and  of  the  same  length  as  the  trough.  It  is  divided  by  a 
partition,  which  arrangement  makes  it  possible  for  the  feeder 


Fig.  40 


to  be  used  in  two  feed  lots  separated  by  a  fence  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  The  grain  is  placed  in  the  hopper  at  the 
top,  which,  like  the  trough  part  below,  is  protected  by  a 
hinged  cover.  The  opening  at  the  lower  part  of  the  hopper 
through  which  the  feed  falls  to  the  trough  is  21  inches  in 
width.  Lengthwise  of  this  opening  flexible  strips  of  wood 
I  in.  X  2  in.  are  set  edgewise  \  inch  apart  as  shown  at  b. 
These  strips  project  below  the  opening,  and  whenever  the 
nose  of  a  pig  in  search  of  food  touches  them  a  small  quantity 


30 


SWIXE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


s<  27 


of  grain  falls  into  the  trough.     With   such  an  arrangement 
there  is  little  danger  of  feed  being  wasted. 

27.     Dipping   Vat. — On   all   farms   where   swine   arc    kept 
there  should  be  at  least  one  dipping  vat  in  which  hogs  can 


Fig.  41 

be  plunged  into  some  kind  of  a  dipping  solution.  This 
treatment  is  usually  necessary  to  keep  the  animals  free  from 
vermin  and  skin  diseases.  Dipping  vats  are  usually  made 
of  galvanized  iron,  although  wood  or  concrete  is  some- 
times used  in  their  construction.  One  of  the  galvanized-iron 
tanks  is  shown  in  Fig.  41.  Tanks  like  the  one  illustrated  are 
for  sale  on  the  market  and  can  be  had  in  a  number  of  sizes. 


Fig.  42 


For  average-sized  hogs,  one  that  is  10  feet  long  and  30  inches 
wide  at  the  top,  5  feet  long,  12  inches  wide  at  the  bottom, 
and  4  feet  deep  will  be  found  satisfactory.  The  vats  are 
sunk  into  the  ground  to  within  about  5  inches  of  the  top  and 


§  27  SWINE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT  37 

the  ground  is  tamped  all  around  to  prevent  them  from  warp- 
in-.  A  runway  about  30  inches  wide  arranged  as  shown  in 
Fig.  42  is  built  about  21  feet  back  from  each  end  of  the  tank. 
When  hogs  are  to  be  dipped  they  are  driven  one  at  a  time 
up  the  incline  of  the  receiving  end.  When  a  hog  reaches 
the  top  of  this  incline  it  slides  down  the  short  incline  into 
the  tank,  which  is  filled  with  the  dipping  solution.  The  hog 
then  swims  to  the  inclined  end  of  the  tank  and  walks  up  the 
incline  of  what  is  called  the  dripping  pen  and  down  the  short 
incline  to  the  ground. 

28.  Hog  Wallow. — Manx-  swine  breeders  make  use  of  a 
device  known  as  a  hog  wallow  as  a  means  of  keeping  hogs 
free  from  parasites  and  skin  diseases.  Its  use  does  not 
require  the  supervision  that  is  necessary  in  the  use  of  the 
dipping  tank.  A  hog  wallow  may  be  made  of  wood  or  cement. 
A  wallow  should  be  not  less  than  8  feet  square,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  make  the  depth  more  than  10  inches. 
The  size  may,  of  course,  be  varied  to  suit  individual  con- 
ditions. One  side  should  be  sloped  at  such  an  angle  as  to 
make  it  easy  for  pigs  to  walk  in  and  out.  This  sloping  end 
furnishes  a  means  by  which  young  fowls  that  may  fall  into 
the  wallow  can  make  their  escape,  and  it  is  also  an  aid  in 
cleaning  out  tilth  and  rubbish  that  may  accumulate.  The 
material  used  for  a  wooden  wallow  should  be  2-inch  planking. 
All  joints  should,  of  course,  be  made  as  tight  as  possible,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  to  have  them  water-tight,  for,  after  the 
planks  have  been  placed  in  the  ground,  sediment  will  quickly 
stop  practically  all  leaks.  If  the  wallow  is  made  10  inches 
deep  it  should  be  set  in  the  ground  about  9  inches,  thus 
allowing  the  upper  edge  to  project  about  1  inch  above  the 
ground  line. 

A  cement  wallow  involves  somewhat  more  labor  in  its 
construction  than  a  wooden  wallow,  but  its  greater  durabilitv 
will,  in  most  cases,  warrant  the  additional  expense.  The 
first  step  in  its  construction  is  the  excavation  of  a  pit.  The 
excavation  for  a  cement  wallow  must  be  made  considerably 
larger  than  for  a  wooden  one,  since  allowance  must  be  made 


38 


SWIXE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


8  -< 


for  walls  and  the  bottom  of  the  wallow.  The  side  and  end 
walls  should  be  about  4  inches  thick.  The  floor  may  be 
made  of  the  same  thickness  and  it  should  be  laid  on  a 
6-inch  bed  of  gravel  or  cinders.  Thus,  if  it  is  desired  to  build 
a  cement  wallow  S  feet  square  and  10  inches  deep,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  make  the  pit  S  feet  S  inches  square  and 
20  inches  deep.  After  the  bed  of  cinders  or  gravel  has  been 
laid  and  tamped  to  a   firm  condition,  the  floor  of  cement, 


Fig.  43 


4  inches  thick,  may  be  laid  over  the  bottom  of  the  entire 
pit.  Across  three  sides  of  the  pit  10-inch  boards  should  be 
placed  on  edge,  4  inches  from  the  earth  wall.  By  filling 
cement  into  the  spaces  between  these  boards  and  the  earth 
three  side  walls  are  formed.  The  wall  on  the  remaining  side 
may  be  constructed  in  the  same  way,  but  a  better  plan  is  to 
slope  it  from  the  ground  line  to  the  bottom  of  the  wallow, 
for  the  reasons  mentioned  in  considering  the  plank  wallow. 


§  2? 


SWINE   HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


39 


In  laying  walls  and  floor,  it  is  well  to  embed  in  the  cement 
several  loops  of  ordinary  fence  wire  or  pieces  of  woven  wire 
for  reinforcement.  A  mixture  of  1  part  of  cement  to  5  or 
(i  parts  of  good  clean  sand  will  be  found  satisfactory  for 
the  above  work,  but  after  the  wallow  is  completed  and  the 
cement  fully  set,  the  inside  should  be  washed  with  pure 
cement,  which  treatment  renders  it  water-tight.  As  soon 
as  this  coat  is  thoroughly  dry,  the  wallow  is  ready  for  use. 
No  matter  which  kind  of  wallow  is  chosen,  it  should  be 
located  convenient  to  a  water  supply.     If  possible,  a  supply 


pipe  should  be  brought  to  the  wallow  so  that  the  latter  can 
be  filled  by  simply  opening  a  valve.  The  general  appearance 
of  a  cement  wallow  is  shown  in  Fig.  43. 

"When  completed,  the  hog  wallow  is  filled  with  water,  a 
concentrated  dipping  solution  is  added,  and  the  pigs  are 
allowed  free  access  to  it.  During  hot  weather  the  animals 
will  spend  much  time  wallowing  in  the  bath,  but  during 
spring  and  fall  it  may  be  necessary  to  resort  to  the  dipping 
tank,  if  the  pigs  become  lousy,  as  they  will  probably  not  go 
into  the  wallow  of  their  own  accord.  The  solution  that  is 
used  in  the  wallow  must  be  much  weaker  than  that  used  in 


40 


SWIXE  HOUSES  AXD  EQUIPMENT 


§  27 


tanks,  for  some  pigs  will  remain  in  the  wallow  for  hours  at 
a  time.  A  solution  that  would  be  entirely  satisfactory  for 
use  in  a  tank  would  be  likely  to  have  a  more  or  less  injurious 
effect  if  animals  were  to  remain  in  it  for  several  hours. 

29.  Boiler. —  A  boiler  of  some  kind  in  which  steam  can 
be  generated  should  be  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  hog  farm 
in  a  cold  climate.  The  steam  is  useful  for  cooking  some  of  the 
feed  for  the  swine  and  can  be  used  for  heating  the  farrowing 
house  in  extremely  cold  weather.  In  purchasing  a  boiler, 
it  is  advisable  to  get  as  good  a  one  as  the  farmer  can  afford; 
a  cheap  one  soon  becomes  unfit  for  use. 

30.  Breeding  Crate. — When  a  small  sow  is  to  be  bred  to 
a  heavy  boar,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  breeding  crate,  such 
as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  44,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  sow. 
Also,  some  sows,  although  in  heat,  will  not  take  the  boar 
readily,  and  the  use  of  a  crate  in  such  cases  insures  a  service. 


Fig.  45 

The  sides,  top  and  bottom  strips,  and  one  end  of  the  crate  are 
made  of  2"X  4"  scantlings;  the  floor  is  of  1-inch  plank.  One 
end  of  the  crate  is  made  open  and  the  other  closed.  Holes 
are  bored  in  the  sides  of  the  crate  and  a  rod  is  provided  that 
can  be  run  through  the  holes  after  the  sow  has  been  placed 
in  the  crate;  the  rod  should  pass  behind  the  sow  at  a  point 
just  above  the  hocks.  A  2"  X  4"  strip  is  fastened  slantwise 
to  each  side  of  the  crate,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  In 
serving  a  sow  the  boar's  feet  will  rest  on  these  strips. 


8  27 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


41 


31.  Feed  Truck. — For  the  hauling  of  feed  and  water 
about  the  swine  yards  and  houses,  a  low  truck,  such  as  the 
one  shown  in  Fig.  45,  is  convenient.  A  truck  of  this  kind 
can  often  be  made  by  the  swine  raiser  from  materials  at 
hand  on  the  farm.     It  should  be  as  low  as  possible  and  have 


E_- 

H_L 

-      ^- 



0>) 


\      1   ' 

i 

.  1 
Sii'i       1     1  '"'■ 

'■'••' 

(c) 


(1) 


Fig.  46 


a  substantial  platform  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  about  three 
barrels.  When  loaded,  such  a  truck  can  be  pulled  about  by 
one  horse  without  difficulty. 

32.     Shipping    Crates. — When   individual    hogs   are    to   be 
shipped,    use   is   made   of   shipping   crates,    one   of   which   is 


42 


SWINE  HOUSES  AND  EQUIPMENT 


§  27 


illustrated  in  Fig.  4G  (a).  A  crate  should  be  light  in  weight, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  strong  enough  to  prevent 
the  animal  from  breaking  out  in  transit.  Strips  of  lumber 
\  inch  thick  and  4,  6,  and  8  inches  wide  are  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  crate.  Elm  or  basswood  are  good  materials  to 
use,  as  they  are  likely  to  be  free  from  knots.  However,  pine 
or  hemlock  of  good  quality  is  often  used.  The  size  of  the 
crate  needed  will  depend  on  the  age  of  the  animal  to  be 
shipped.  The  sizes  given  in  Table  I  are  inside  measure- 
ments and  will  generally  be  found  satisfactory. 

TABLE  I 
SIZES    OF    CRATES    FOR    SWINE    OF    VARIOUS    AGES 


Age  of  Animal 

Length 

Inches 

Width 
Inches 

Height 
Inches 

3  months 

36 

12 

22 

6  months 

46 

1 8 

26 

8  to  io  months 

1 

54 

20 

30 

Mature  hogs  of  avera 

ge  size 

60 

24 

38 

Mature  hogs  of  large 

size ... 

72 

30 

42 

In  building  a  crate,  two  sides  like  that  in  Fig.  4G  (b)  are 
made  first.  The  width  of  the  bottom  strip  is  S  inches,  that 
of  the  top  strip  is  6  inches,  that  of  the  two  middle  strips  is 
4  inches,  and  that  of  the  standards  is  4  inches.  The  middle 
standard  is  needed  only  when  a  crate  G  feet  long  or  longer 
is  built.  The  two  bottom  strips  are  placed  closer  together 
than  those  at  the  top,  in  order  to  prevent  the  hog  from  getting 
its  feet  between  the  strips.  The  bottom  is  next  constructed 
as  shown  in  (c) ;  it  is  made  of  1-inch  boards  nailed  crosswise 
to  1"  X  IV'  strips.  The  sides  are  then  nailed  to  the  bottom 
as  shown  in  (J).  The  crate  is  next  stood  on  end  and  cross- 
pieces  are  nailed  on  the  upturned  end  as  shown  in  (e).  The 
end  on  which  the  strips  are  nailed  crosswise  is  the  front  of 
the  crate.  At  the  rear  end  the  strips  are  nailed  crosswise 
at  the  top  and  bottom  only,  as  shown  in  (/).     For  the  top, 


SWINE  HOUSES    AND  EQUIPMENT 


43 


two  strips  are  nailed  lengthwise  and  a  strip  crosswise.     Two 

strips  the  height  of  the  crate  are  also  cut  to  be  used  as  end 

pieces;  after  the  hog 

has    been    placed    in 

the  crate  they  are  set 

in  a  vertical  position  F"»-  47 

as  shown  in  (a),  and  are  nailed  in  place  from  the  inside. 

33.  Hurdles.— Hurdles  fastened  together  by  hinges,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  47,  are  a  convenient  accessory  to  have  about 
a  hog  farm.  Hurdles  are  useful  when  driving  hogs,  or  when 
sorting  them  into  groups.  Four  hurdles  fastened  together 
make  a  convenient  temporary  pen.  For  a  small  triangular 
pen  three  hurdles  can  be  used.  Hurdles  should  be  made  of 
1"  X  4"  strips  of  lumber  of  light  weight  and  good  quality. 
They  are  made  2  feet  high,  and  12,  14,  or  16  feet  long,  as  is 
desired. 

34.  Loading  Chute.— A  chute  for  loading  hogs  into  a 
wagon  or  other  conveyance  should  be  a  part  of  every  swine 
raiser's  equipment.  In  Fig.  48  is  shown  a  good  type.  It  is 
16  feet  long,  2  feet  wide,  and  the  sides  are  30  inches  high. 
Iron  hooks  that  catch  into  the  end  of  the  wagon  and  on  the 
upper  end  of  the  chute  are  provided.     Treads  are  fastened  on 


Pig.  48 


the  incline  to  facilitate  walking  up  the  chute.     Such  a  chute 
should  be  built  of  hard  lumber  and  put  together  with  bolts. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Swine  possess  sufficient  differences  in  conformation  to 
warrant  swine  raisers  in  recognizing  and  the  market  in 
accepting  two  distinct  types,  or  classes:  the  lard,  or  fat-hog, 
type  and  the  bacon,  or  lean-hog,  type.  The  hogs  of  all  breeds 
of  swine,  and  all  hogs  of  no  particular  breed,  can  be  classed 
either  as  lard  or  as  bacon  hogs.  In  the  following  pages  are 
given  brief  descriptions  of  both  types  of  swine,  and  also  of 
all  the  leading  breeds  in  North  America. 

Several  of  the  breeds  of  swine  are  native  to  North  America. 
In  this  connection,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  more  breeds 
of  swine  have  originated  in  North  America  than  of  all  other 
classes  of  farm  livestock  together.  As  may  be  learned  in 
the  subsequent  pages,  these  American  breeds  of  swine  have 
been  formed,  in  some  cases,  by  crossing  native  hogs  with 
those  brought  from  Europe  or  Asia,  and  in  other  cases  by 
crossing  native  stock  with  native  stock  and  selecting  the 
best  of  their  offspring  for  breeding  purposes.  The  breeds  of 
swine  described  in  this  Section  that  are  not  native  to  America 
are  native  to  Europe.  All  of  the  European  breeds  given  are 
well  established  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  in 
these  countries  the  interests  of  the  breeds  are  fostered  by 
American  breeding  associations. 

The  breeds  of  the  lard  type  described  are  Berkshire,  Poland- 
China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White,  Mule-Foot,  Cheshire, 
Small  Yorkshire,  Victoria,  and  Essex;  those  of  the  bacon 
type  are  Large  Yorkshire,  Tamworth,  and  Hampshire. 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK   COMPANY.        ENTERED   AT    STATIONERS'    HALL.    LONDON 

§  28 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


§28 


2.  In  describing  the  different  breeds  of  swine,  mention 
is  made  of  certain  parts  of  a  hog,  and  in  order  that  a  clear 
understanding  may  be  had  of  the  location  of  these  parts, 
they  are  designated  by  letters  on  the  outline  view  of  an 
animal  shown  in  Fig.  1.     In  the  illustration,  a  is  the  snout; 


Fig.  1 

b,  the  ear;  c,  the  poll;  d,  the  jowl;  e,  the  neck;  /,  the  shoulder; 
g,  the  front  leg;  //,  the  chest;  i,  the  side;  j,  the  back;  k,  the 
loin;  I,  the  rump;  m,  the  ham;  n,  the  hind  leg;  o,  the  fore 
flank;  p,  the  belly;  q,  the  hind  flank;  r,  the  pastern  joint; 
s,  the  scrotum;  and  t,  the  tail. 


TYPES   OF   SWINE 


LARD    TYPE    OF    SWINE 

3.  Hogs  of  the  lard  type,  as  the  term  implies,  produce 
large  quantities  of  fat.  The  animals  have,  as  a  rule,  well 
developed  hams  and  shoulders,  but  they  produce  only  a  fair 
quantity  of  bacon.  The  lard  type  of  hog  has  resulted  largely 
from  the  abundance  and  general  use  of  Indian  corn  as  feed. 
Corn  fattens  hogs  readily,  but  it  is  more  conducive  to  the 
production  of  thick  layers  of  fat  than  of  alternate  layers  of 
fat  and  lean,  such  as  is  desired  in  bacon. 

The  animals  of  the  different  lard-type  breeds  are  of  the 
same   general   character,   but   differ  in   minor  respects.     An 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  3 

animal  of  the  lard  type  should  show  good  width  and  fair 
length,  and  should  be  built  low  to  the  ground.  The  snout 
should  be  of  medium  length,  the  eyes  full,  mild,  and  bright,  the 
face  short,  the  cheeks  full,  the  jowl  strong  and  broad,  and  the 
neck  thick  and  of  a  medium  length.  The  shoulders  should 
be  broad  and  compact  on  top,  the  chest  broad,  the  sides  deep, 
the  back  broad  and  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed,  the  loins  wide 
and  thick,  and  the  bottom  line  straight  and  even.  The  hams 
should  be  heavily  fleshed,  plump,  full,  deep,  and  wide. 
An  animal  possessing  the  conformation  just  described  will 
be  broad,  compact,  low  set,  and  well  adapted  to  produce  a 
large  proportion  of  ham,  shoulder,  and  lard,  and  still  give  a 
fair  quantity  of  bacon. 

BACON    TYPE    OF    SWINE 

4.  Hogs  of  the  bacon  type,  as  the  name  indicates,  produce 
relatively  large  quantities  of  bacon.  Their  bodies  are  long, 
deep,  and  narrow  throughout.  The  shoulders  and  hams 
are  not  so  well  developed  as  in  the  lard  type  of  hogs,  but  they 
should  be  smoothly  covered  with  flesh  and  in  line  with  the 
sides.  The  back  should  be  of  moderate  but  uniform  width, 
and  smoothly  covered.  The  sides,  as  they  are  the  parts 
from  which  the  bacon  is  taken,  should  be  long  and  deep, 
and  have  a  good  thickness  of  flesh.  There  should  be  no 
falling  away  at  the  flanks,  and  the  flesh  should  be  firm  and  free 
from  wrinkles. 

In  general  appearance,  hogs  of  the  bacon  type  are  long  and 
narrow,  have  long  heads,  and  stand  up  rather  high  on  their 
legs.  There  is  really  no  use  of  the  great  length  of  the  head 
and  legs,  so  far  as  meat  production  is  concerned,  but  it  seems 
impossible  to  breed  hogs  without  there  being  a  certain 
correlation  of  parts,  and  it  has  been  found  that  a  hog  with 
long  legs  and  head  will  generally  have  a  long  and  narrow  body. 


TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWIXE 


§28 


BREEDS   OF   SWIXE 


BREEDS    OF   THE    LARD   TYPE 


BERKSHIRE     SWINE 


5.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Berkshire  breed  of 
swine  originated  in  the  southern  part  of  England,  particularly 
in  the  counties  of  Berkshire  and  Wilts.  The  foundation  stock 
of  the  breed  has  been  described  in  early  records  as  beiny  of  a 


Fig   2 

reddish-brown  color  more  or  less  covered  with  black  spots, 
and  having  large  ears,  short  legs,  and  small  bones.  Some  of 
these  early  Berkshires  were  of  exceptionally  large  size. 
Early  improvement  in  the  breed  was  accomplished  by  crossing 
this  foundation  stock  with  Chinese  swine.      After  such  crossing 


.**-■ 


6  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

had  been  continued  for  several  generations,  the  color  became 
changed  to  a  sandy  or  whitish  brown,  spotted  with  black. 
Later,  the  color  became  established  as  black  with  white 
markings  on  the  head,  tail,  and  legs,  and  sometimes  on  the 
body.  In  addition  to  changes  of  color,  improvement  has 
resulted  in  animals  of  the  breed  becoming  somewhat  smaller 
in  size  and  much  finer  in  quality.  American  breeders  of 
Berkshires  have  done  much  to  develop  the  breed  since  the 
importation  of  the  first  animals  in  1823.  In  Xorth  America, 
the  Berkshires  have  become  developed  to  such  a  state  of 
general  excellence  that  they  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  wherever  kept  are  popular. 

6.  Description. — In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  typical  boar  of  the 
Berkshire  breed.  Fig.  3  shows  a  group  of  12-months-old 
Berkshire  sows  owned  by  A.  J.  Lovejoy,  of  Roscoe,  Illinois. 
The  animals  of  this  breed  are  black  in  color  and  usually  show 
six  white  points,  namely,  on  the  face,  on  the  tail,  and  on  the 
four  feet.  A  splash  of  white  on  the  jowl,  under  the  neck,  or  on 
the  forelegs  is  often  found  and  is  not  regarded  by  the  American 
Berkshire  Association  as  a  disqualification.  White  ears  are 
sometimes  found,  but  they  are  not  objected  to  by  breeders 
and  judges.  The  black  of  the  Berkshires  differs  somewhat 
from  the  black  of  some  of  the  other  breeds  in  that  it  is  a  sort 
of  blue-black. 

The  conformation  of  the  modern  Berkshire  is  typical  of 
the  lard  hog.  An  animal  of  this  breed  has  a  short  face  that 
is  gracefully  dished;  the  ears  are  short,  pointed,  and  usually 
erect;  the  back  is  broad  and  level;  the  hams  are  full;  and  the 
legs  are  short,  strong,  and  straight.  Trimness  and  smoothness 
throughout  all  parts  is  a  marked  additional  characteristic  of 
the  Berkshire. 

Berkshires  are  of  medium  to  large  size.  The  average 
mature  boar  in  good  breeding  condition  should  weigh  about 
500  pounds  and  the  sow  about  400  pounds.  Frequently 
specimens  are  found  that  weigh  considerably  more  than 
these  weights.  The  pigs  can  be  made  ready  for  market  at 
from  6  to  S  months  of  age,  if  desired. 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  7 

Among  the  general  qualities  claimed  by  Berkshire  breeders 
for  this  breed  are:  The  animals  are  as  docile  as  those  of  any 
breed  known,  being  quiet,  tractable,  and  easily  handled; 
they  can  be  adapted  to  any  climatic  condition;  they  are 
vigorous  and  hardy,  and  work  improvement  on  any  other 
breed  with  which  they  may  be  crossed;  the  sows  are 
excellent  mothers  and  are  very  prolific,  large  litters  of  strong 
pigs  being  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  Further  than 
this,  it  is  claimed  that  Berkshires  produce  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  lean  to  fat  than  the  animals  of  the  other  lard-type 
breeds. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  animal  of 
the  breed  as  compiled  from  the  standard  of  excellence  adopted 
by  the  National  Association  of  Expert  Judges  of  Swine. 

1.  Head  and  Face. — Head  short,  broad,  coming  well  forward  at 
the  poll.  Face  short,  fine,  and  well  dished;  broad  between  the  eyes; 
tapering  from  the  eyes  to  the  point  of  the  nose;  surface  even  and 
regular. 

Objections:  Head  long,  narrow,  and  coarse;  forehead  low  and 
narrow;  jaws  narrow  or  contracted,  the  lower  jaws  extending  beyond 
the  upper.  Face  long,  straight,  and  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose 
coarse,  thick,  crooked,  or  ridgy. 

2.  Eyes. — Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark,  hazel,  or  gray. 
Objections:     Small,    dull,    bloodshot,    deep   set,    or   obscure;    vision 

impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat,  or  other  cause. 

3.  Ears. — Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined  for- 
wards with  advancing  age;  medium  size;  thin  and  soft. 

Objections:  Large,  coarse,  thick,  round,  or  drooping;  long  or  large 
knuckle;  difference  in  form,  size,  or  position;  animals  unable  to  main- 
tain the  normal  position. 

4.  Neck. — Full,  deep,  short,  and  slightly  arched;  broad  on  the 
top;  well  connected  with  the  shoulder. 

Objections:     Long  and  flat;  lacking  in  fullness  and  depth. 

5  Jowl. — Full,  firm,  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulder 
and  brisket. 

Objections:     Light,  flabby,  thin,  tucked  up,  or  wrinkled. 

6.  Shoulders.— Broad,  deep,  full,  and  not  extended  above  the 
line  of  the  back;  as  wide  on  top  as  the  back;  carrying  size  down  to 
line  of  belly- and  having  lateral  width 

Objections:  Lacking  in  depth  or  width;  thick  beyond  the  line  of 
the  sides  and  hams  or  extending  above  the  line  of  the-  back;  heavy 
shields  on  hogs  under  18  months  of  age. 


8  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWIXE  §  28 

7.  Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep,  and  roomy;  full  girth,  breast  bone 
curving  well  forwards  and  extending  back  on  a  level:  not  tucked  up; 
broad  between  the  forelegs. 

Objections:  Flat,  narrow  at  the  top  or  the  bottom;  small  girth; 
lacking  depth  or  fullness;  breast  bone  crooked  or  tucked  up. 

8.  Back. — Broad  and  straight,  carrying  same  width  from  shoulder 
to  ham;  surface  even  and  smooth,  without  creases  or  projections,  and 
not  too  long. 

Objections:  Narrow,  swayed,  or  hollow;  dropping  below  a  straight 
line. 

9.  Sides  axd  Ribs. — Sides  full,  smooth,  firm,  and  deep;  carrying 
size  down  to  belly  and  evenly  from  ham  to  shoulder.  Ribs  long, 
strong,  and  well  sprung  at  the  top  and  the  bottom. 

Objections:  Sides  flat.  thin,  or  flabby;  not  as  full  at  the  bottom  as 
at  the  top.      Ribs  weak;  not  well  sprung  at  the  top  or  the  bottom. 

10.  Belly  and  Flaxk. — Wide,  full,  and  straight  on  the  bottom  line. 
Objections:     Belly  narrow  or  sagging.      Flank  thin  or  tucked  up. 

11.  Ham  axd  Rump. — Ham  broad,  full,  and  long:  the  lower  front 
part  of  the  ham  should  be  full  and  the  stifle  joint  well  covered  with 
flesh,  coming  well  down  on  the  hock.  Rump  should  have  a  rounding 
slope  from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  tail,  be  of  the  same  width  as  the  back, 
and  filled  out  on  each  side  and  above  the  tail. 

Objections:  Ham  narrow,  short,  or  thin;  not  projecting  beyond 
stifle  joint  and  coming  down  on  the  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  the  crotch. 
Rump  flat,  narrow,  or  too  steep. 

12.  Legs  axd  Feet. — Legs  short,  straight,  strong,  and  set  wide 
apart;  hoofs  erect  and  capable  of  holding  good  weight. 

Objections:  Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  or  crooked;  muscles  light; 
pastern  long,  slim,  or  flat:  feet  long  or  sprawling. 

13.  Tail. — Well  set  up,  fine,  tapering,  and  neatly  curled. 
Objections:     Coarse  or  straight;  too  low. 

14.  Coat. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  and  lying  close  to  and  covering 
the  body  well;  not  clipped;  evenly  distributed  over  the  body. 

Objections:  Hair  coarse,  harsh,  wavy,  or  curly:  not  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  body;  swirled  or  clipped. 

15.  Color. — Black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail,  and  an 
occasional  splash  on  the  forelegs. 

Objections:     Solid  black  or  black  points,  or  white  spots  on  body. 

16.  Size. — Large  for  age.  Boar  2  years  and  over  not  less  than 
450  pounds:  sow  at  same  age,  400  pounds.  Boar  at  18  months, 
350  pounds;  sow  at  same  age.  325  pounds.  Boar  at  12  months, 
300  pounds;  sow  at  same  age,  275  pounds.  Boar  and  sow  at  6  months, 
15(1  pounds. 

Objections:     Underweight,  coarse,  or  not  in  good  form  to  fatten. 

17.  Actiox  axd  Style. — Action  vigorous.  Style  graceful  and 
attractive. 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  9 

Objections:     Dull,  sluggish,  or  clumsy. 

18.  Condition. — Healthy;  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales,  or  sores,  and 
soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on,  and  free  from 
lumps;  hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  the  body;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections:  Unhealthy;  skin  scaly,  scabby,  or  harsh;  flabbiness  or 
lump  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breathing;  hair  harsh,  dry,  and  standing 
up  from  the  body;  poor  feeders;  deafness,  partial  or  total. 

19.  Disposition. — Quiet,  gentle,  and  easy  to  handle. 
Objections:     Cross,  restless,  vicious,  or  wild. 


POLAND-CHINA    SWINE 

7.  Origin  and  Development.— The  Poland-China  breed  of 

swine  originated  in  the  counties  of  Butler  and  Warren  in 
Southwestern  Ohio,  as  a  result  of  crossing  the  mongrel  hogs 
of  the  early  settlers  with  Berkshires  and  other  old  breeds 
from  Europe  and  Asia.  Associated  with  Butler  and  Warren 
counties  in  the  early  improvement  of  the  breed  were  Hamilton 
County  in  Ohio,  and  Union  and  Wayne  counties  in  Indiana, 
the  five  counties  constituting  a  region  known  as  the  Miami 
Valley.  The  first  result  of  the  cross-breeding  was  a  breed 
of  hogs  that  possessed  many  excellent  qualities  but  lacked 
fixity  of  characters.  In  recent  years,  however,  the  desired 
characters  have  been  made  permanent  by  the  practicing  of 
careful  selection  in  breeding,  and  now  the  Poland-China  is 
noted  as  an  economical  pork-producing  breed.  Poland-China 
swine  are  raised  extensively  throughout  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  but  are  found  in  larger  numbers  in  the  corn  belt 
than  elsewhere. 

8.  Description. — In  Fig.  4  is  shown  a  boar  of  the  Poland- 
China  breed,  and  in  Fig.  5  a  Poland-China  sow.  The 
Poland-China  swine  are  black  with  six  white  points — white 
in  the  face,  on  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  on  the  four  feet. 
Splashes  of  white  are  sometimes  found  on  the  jaw,  legs, 
flanks,  sides,  or  back,  and  are  not  objected  to  by  judges 
and  breeders.  The  black  should  be  jet  black  and  not  blue- 
black,  as  in  the  Berkshires. 

Like  the  Berkshires,  the  Poland-Chinas  possess  the  char- 
acteristic conformation  of  the  lard  type.     They  have  short 


Fie.  4 


Fig. 


10 


§28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  11 

heads,  wide  faces  that  are  but  slightly  dished,  full  jowls, 
short  and  wide  necks,  broad  shoulders,  wide  backs,  well- 
sprung  ribs,  broad  loins,  full  and  broad  hams,  deep  sides,  and 
legs  that  are  straight  and  of  medium  length.  A  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  breed  is  the  ears;  these  are  rather  small  and 
on  an  ideal  animal  should  stand  up  slightly  at  the  base  to 
within  two-thirds  of  the  tip,  where  a  gentle  break  or  drop 
should  occur. 

Poland-China  swine  are  of  medium  to  large  size.  A  mature 
boar  in  breeding  condition  should  weigh  about  .")()()  pounds 
and  a  mature  sow  about  400  pounds.  Poland-China  pigs 
that  are  fed  for  market  can  usually  be  made  to  weigh 
200  pounds  at  6  months  of  age,  and  250  pounds  is  by  no 
means  rare  at  this  age. 

The  Poland-Chinas  are  profitable  hogs  for  farmers  who 
feed  corn,  as  the  swine  mature  quickly  and  take  on  large 
quantities  of  fat.  This  fat  is  less  streaked  with  lean  than 
in  the  case  of  Berkshires,  being  arranged  in  thick  layers. 
In  fact,  in  recent  years  some  objection  has  been  raised  to 
Poland-China  pork  as  a  meat  for  export,  because  of  the 
excessive  fatness  of  the  bacon.  The  American  market, 
however,  does  not  make  such  a  discrimination.  Perhaps  one 
reason  for  the  ready-fattening  quality  of  Poland-Chinas  is 
the  fact  that  they  are  less  inclined  to  take  exercise  than 
animals  of  the  other  breeds. 

The  Poland-China  breed  has  been  somewhat  severely 
criticized  in  recent  years  because  of  the  lack  of  prolificacy  in 
the  sows.  It  is  true  that  sows  of  the  breed  produce  smaller 
litters  than  sows  of  any  of  the  other  common  breeds.  One 
authority  has  given  the  average  size  of  Poland-China  litters, 
based  on  a  large  number  of  observations,  as  7.45  pigs;  of 
Berkshires,  8.22  pigs;  of  Chester  Whites,  8.96  pigs;  and  of 
Duroc-Jerseys,  9.20  pigs. 

A  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  Poland-China,  as  out- 
lined by  the  National  Association  of  Expert  Judges  of  Swine, 
is  given  in  the  following. 

1.  Head  and  Face. — Head  should  be  broad,  even,  and  smooth 
between  and  above  the  eyes;  broad  lower  jaw.      Face  slightly  dished. 


12  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

tapering  evenly  and  gradually  to  near  the  end  of  the  nose;  inclined 
to  shortness,  but  not  short  enough  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  stubby 
nose. 

Objections:  Long  or  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  uneven  and 
coarse;  too  large  at  the  muzzle  or  the  head  too  short;  not  full  or  high 
above  the  eyes;  or  too  much  wrinkled  around  or  above  the  eyes. 

2.  Eyes. — Full,  clear,  prominent,  and  expressive. 

Objections:  Dull  expression;  deep  set  or  obscure;  sight  impaired 
by  wrinkles,  fat,  or  other  cause. 

3.  Ears. — Attached  to  the  head  by  a  short,  firm  knuckle,  giving 
free  and  easy  action;  standing  up  slightly  at  the  base  to  within  two- 
thirds  of  the  tip.  where  a  gentle  break  or  drop  should  occur;  in  size 
neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  but  even,  fine,  thin,  and  of  leaf  shape; 
slightly  inclined  outwards. 

Objections:  Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright,  or  coarse;  knuckles 
long,  letting  the  ear  droop  too  close  to  the  head  and  face,  hindering 
the  hearing. 

4.  Xeck. — Short,  wide,  even,  smooth,  well  arched  and  rounding 
and  full  from  the  poll  to  the  shoulder,  with  due  regard  to  the  sex. 

Objections:  Long,  narrow,  thin,  and  dropping  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  poll,  with  unevenness  caused  by  wrinkles  or  creases. 

5.  Jowl. — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  and  firm,  carrying  fullness 
back  near  to  the  point  of  the  shoulders,  and  below  the  line  of  the 
lower  jaw,  so  that  the  lower  line  will  be  as  low  as  the  breast  bone  when 
the  head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections:  Light,  flabby,  thin,  or  wedge-shaped;  deeply  wrinkled; 
not  drooping  below  the  line  of  the  lower  jaw,  or  not  carrying  fullness 
back  to  the  shoulder  and  brisket. 

6.  Shoulder. — Broad  and  oval  at  the  top,  showing  evenness  with 
the  back  and  neck,  with  good  width  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  and 
even  smoothness;  extending  well  forwards. 

Objections:  Narrow  at  the  top  or  the  bottom;  not  so  deep  as  the 
body;  uneven  width;  shields  on  pigs  under  8  months  of  age,  or  showing 
too  much  shield  at  any  age. 

7.  Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep,  and  full;  even  bottom  line  to  the 
shoulders  and  sides,  with  no  creases;  giving  plenty  of  room  for  heart 
and  other  organs;  of  a  large  girth,  indicating  much  vitality;  brisket 
smooth,  even,  and  broad;  wide  between  the  legs  and  extending  well 
forwards,  showing  in  front. 

Objections:  Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  the  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  the  fore  legs;  showing  too  narrow  between  the  legs; 
not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulders;  brisket  uneven,  narrow,  or 
not  prominent. 

8.  Back. — Broad,  straight,  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  the  same 
width  from  the  shoulders  to  the  hams;  surface  even,  smooth,  and  free 
from  lumps,  creases,  or  projections;  not  too  long,  but  broad  on  top, 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  13 

indicating  well-sprung  ribs;  should  not  be  higher  at  the  hip  than  at 
the  shoulder,  and  should  till  ou1  at  the  junction  with  the  sides  so  that 
a  straightedge  placed  along  the  top  of  side  will  touch  all  the  way  from 
the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  point  of  the  ham;  should  be  shorter 
than  the  belly  line. 

Objections:  Narrow,  creased  back  of  the  shoulders,  swaved,  or 
hollow;  dropping  below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  wrinkled;  too  long 
or  sun-fish  shaped;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed,  or  humped  up; 
surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy,  or  uneven;  width  at  the  sides  not  so 
much  as  at  the  shoulders  and  hams. 

9.  Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full,  firm,  and  deep;  free  from  wrinkles; 
carrying  size  down  to  belly;  even  from  hams  to  shoulders.  Ribs  of 
good  length,  well  sprung  at  the  top  and  the  bottom. 

Objections:  Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched;  not  so  full  at  the  bottom 
as  at  the  top;  drawing  in  at  the  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a  crease  or 
pinched  and  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham;  uneven 
surface.      Ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

10.  Belly  and  Flank. — Belly  broad,  straight,  and  full,  indicating 
capacity  and  room,  being  on  a  level  at  the  flank  with  the  under  chest 
line;  bottom  line  straight,  or  nearly  so,  and  free  from  flabby  appearance. 

Objections:  Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent  looseness  in 
the  make-up.      Pinched  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  high. 

11.  Ham  and  Rump. — Ham  broad,  full,  deep,  and  long  from  the 
rump  to  the  hock;  fully  developed  above  and  below,  wide  at  the  point 
of  the  hip  and  carrying  the  width  well  down  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
hams;  fleshy,  plump,  and  a  rounding  fullness  perceptible  everywhere. 
Rump  rounding  and  gradually  sloping  from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the 
tail;  broad  and  well  developed  all  along  from  the  loin  and  gradually 
rounding  to  the  buttock;  lower  front  part  of  the  ham  should  be  full 
and  the  stifle  joint  well  covered  with  flesh.  Even  width  of  ham  and 
rump  with  the  back,  loin,  and  body;  even  a  greater  width  in  females 
not  objectionable. 

Objections:  Ham  short,  narrow,  too  round,  or  slim;  not  filled  out 
above  or  below,  or  unshapely  for  deep  meat;  not  so  wide  as  the  body; 
back  or  loin  too  tapering  or  small.  Rump  narrow  or  pointed,  not 
plump  or  well  filled,  or  too  steep  from  the  loin  to  the  tail. 

12.  Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  of  medium  length,  straight,  set  well 
apart,  and  squarely  under  the  body;  tapering,  well  muscled,  and  wide 
above  the  knees  and  hock;  below  the  hocks  and  knees  round  and 
tapering;  capable  of  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  animal  in  full  flesh 
without  breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture;  pasterns  short 
and  nearly  upright.      Feet  firm,  short,  tough,  and  free  from  defects. 

Objections:  Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  or  crooked;  muscles  small  above 
the  hocks  and  knees;  bone  large  or  coarse;  as  large  at  the  foot  as  above 
the  knee;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked,  or  weak;  the  hocks  turned  in 
or  out  from  a  straight  line;  legs  too  close  together;  hoofs  long,  slim, 


14  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked  or  unable  to  bear  the  weight  of 
the  animal  without  breaking  down. 

13.  Tail. — Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth,  tapering  well, 
and  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections:  Coarse  and  long  without  a  curl;  or  short,  crooked,  or 
stubby;  or  too  small,  fine,  or  even,  and  not  tapering. 

14.  Coat. — Fine,  straight,  lying  close  to  and  covering  the  body 
well;  not  clipped;  evenly  distributed  over  the  body. 

Objections:  Bristles;  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy,  or  curly; 
swirls;  standing  up;  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown;  not  evenly  distributed 
over  all  of  the  body  except  on  the  belly. 

15.  Color. — Black  with  six  white  points:  at  the  tip  of  tail,  four 
white  feet,  and  white  in  face — on  the  nose  or  the  point  of  the  lower 
jaw — all  to  be  perceptible  without  close  examination;  splashes  of 
white  on  the  jaw,  legs,  or  flank,  or  a  few  spots  of  white  on  the  body 
are  not  objectionable. 

Objections:  Solid  black,  white  mixed  or  sandy  spots;  speckled 
with  white  hairs  over  the  body;  mottled  face  of  white  and  black;  hair 
mixed,  making  a  grizzly  appearance. 

16.  Size. — In  show  condition,  or  when  fat,  a  2-year-old  boar 
should  weigh  not  less  than  600  pounds,  and  a  sow  not  less  than  500 
pounds;  a  boar  1  year  old  and  over,  400  pounds  and  a  sow  350 
pounds;  a  boar  18  months  old,  500  pounds;  and  a  sow,  450  pounds; 
a  boar  and  sow  6  months  old,  not  less  than  160  pounds.  All  hogs  in 
just  fair  breeding  condition,  one-fourth  less  in  size. 

Objections:  Overgrown;  undersized,  short,  stubby,  or  inclined  to 
chubby  fatness;  not  a  hardy,  robust  animal. 

17.  Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous,  easy,  and  graceful. 
Style  attractive. 

Objections:  Slow  and  awkward  movements;  waddling  or  twisting 
walk;  a  tired  or  lazy  appearance;  not  standing  erect  and  firm. 

18.  Condition. — Healthy;  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales,  and  sores; 
soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on,  and  free  from 
lumps  and  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  the  body;  good 
feeding  qualities. 

Objections:  Unhealthy;  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby,  or  harsh: 
flabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair  harsh,  dry, 
and  standing  up  from  the  body;  poor  feeders;  deafness,  partial  or  total. 

19.  Disposition. — Lively,  easily  handled,  and  seemingly  kind: 
responsive  to  good  treatment. 

Objections:     Cross,  sluggish,  restless,  wild,  or  vicious. 


§28 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


15 


DUROC-.JKRSEY    SWINE 

9.     Origin  and  Development.     The  Duroc-Jersey  breed  of 

swine  is  an  American  breed  that  was  originated  by  crossing 
the  Durocs,  a  breed  of  red  swine  found  in  New  York  State, 
with  the  Jersey  Reds,  a  breed  of  red  swine  found  in  New- 
Jersey.  These  original  breeds  constituting  the  foundation 
stock  of  the  Duroc-Jerseys  probably  sprang  from  some  of  the 
red  swine,  such  as  the  Guinea  hogs,  Portuguese  hogs,  red 
Spanish  hogs,  and  Berkshires,  that  were  imported  into  North 


Fig.  6 

America  at  an  early  date.  At  first  the  animals  resulting 
from  the  Duroc  and  Jersey  Red  crosses  had  many  undesirable 
qualities;  in  late  years,  by  care  in  the  selection  of  animals 
for  mating,  much  improvement  has  been  made,  until  the 
Duroc-Jersey  has  become  recognized  as  one  of  the  leading 
breeds  of  the  lard  type.  This  breed  is  especially  popular  in 
Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska. 

10.     Description.— Fig.    G   shows   a   typical    Duroc-Jersey 
boar.     The    Duroc-Jerseys   are   of   a   cherry-red   color   when 


10  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

purely  bred.  It  often  happens,  however,  especially  in 
mature  animals,  that  they  become  copper  or  reddish  gray 
in  color,  and  in  some  instances  the  tips  of  the  hairs  turn  black. 
These  variations  from  the  established  cherry-red  color  are 
undesirable.  Black  spots  on  the  belly  and  legs  are  also 
undesirable,  but  are  admissible. 

The  conformation  of  Duroc-Jersey  swine  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Berkshires  and  Poland-Chinas.  The  head  is  small,  the 
face  straight  or  slightly  dished,  the  nose  of  medium  length, 
the  ears  are  of  medium  size  and  point  forwards  and  down- 
wards; the  back  is  broad  in  comparison  to  its  length,  the 
sides  are  deep,  and  the  hams  and  shoulders  are  heavily  fleshed 
and  extend  well  down  on  the  legs. 

In  size,  the  Duroc-Jerseys  are  somewhat  large.  Mature 
boars  in  good  breeding  condition  should  weigh  from  about 
500  to  550  pounds  and  mature  sows  in  the  same  condition 
should  weigh  from  about  400  to  450  pounds.  Duroc-Jersey 
pigs  that  are  fed  for  market  mature  quickly  and  reach  a 
good  size. 

A  point  of  merit  in  Duroc-Jersey  swine  is  their  prolificacy, 
and  the  ability  of  the  sows  to  save  their  pigs  after  farrowing. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  animal 
of  the  breed  as  compiled  from  the  standard  of  excellence 
adopted  by  the  Duroc-Jersey  Breeders'  Association. 

1.  Head  and  Face. — Head  small  in  proportion  to  size  of  body; 
wide  between  the  eyes.  Face  slightly  dished  (about  half  way  between 
Poland-China  and  Berkshire)  and  tapering  well  down  to  the  nose; 
surface  smooth  and  even. 

Objections:  Head  large  and  coarse;  narrow  between  the  eyes. 
Face  straight,  or  too  much  dished. 

2.  Eyes. — Lively,  bright,  and  prominent. 
Objections:     Dull,  weak,  or  obscure. 

3.  Ears. — Medium,  moderately  thin,  pointing  forwards  and  down- 
wards and  slightly  outwards;  carrying  a  slight  curve;  attached  to 
head  neatly. 

Objections:  Very  large;  round,  or  nearly  so;  too  swinging  or  flabby; 
not  of  same  size  or  in  different  positions,  and  not  under  control  of 
animal. 

4     Neck. — Short,  thick,  and  very  deep;  slightly  arching. 

Objections:     Long,  shallow,  and  thin. 


s<  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  17 

5.  Jowl. — Broad,  full,  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  back  to  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  and  in  line  with  the  breast  bone. 

Objections:  Too  large,  loose,  and  flabby,  or  too  small,  thin,  and 
wedging. 

6.  Shoulder. — Moderately  broad,  very  deep  and  full,  and  not 
extending  above  the  line  of  the  back;  carrying  thickness  well  down. 

Objections:  Small,  thin,  shallow;  extending  above  the  line  of  the 
back;  boars  under  1  year  old  heavily  shielded. 

7.  Chest. — Large;  very  deep;  full  behind  shoulders,  and  breast 
bone  extending  well  forwards,  so  as  to  be  readily  seen. 

Objections:  Flat,  shallow,  or  not  extending  well  down  between  the 
forelegs. 

8.  Back. — Medium  in  breadth;  straight  or  slightly  arching,  carry- 
ing even  width  from  the  shoulders  to  the  ham;  surface  even  and  smooth 

Objections:     Narrow;  creased  behind  shoulders;  swayed  or  humped. 

9.  Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  very  deep  and  of  medium  length;  level 
between  shoulders  and  hams,  and  carrying  the  fullness  down  to  the 
line  of  the  belly.  Ribs  long,  strong,  and  sprung  in  proportion  to  the 
width  of  the  shoulders  and  hams. 

Objections:  Flabby;  creased;  shallow  and  not  carrying  proper 
width  from  the  top  to  the  bottom. 

10.  Belly  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full  and  carrying  fullness 
well  out  to  the  line  of  the  sides. 

Objections:  Belly  narrow;  tucked  up;  sagging  and  flabby.  Flank 
tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

11.  Ham  and  Rump. — Ham  broad,  full,  and  extending  well  down 
to  the  hock;  buttocks  full,  and  coming  nearly  down  to  and  filled 
between  hocks.  Rump  should  have  a  rounding  slope  from  loin  to  root 
of  tail;  same  width  as  back  and  well  filled  out  around  the  tail. 

Objections:  Ham  narrow  or  short;  thin  or  projecting  well  down 
to  the  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  the  crotch.  Rump  narrow,  flat,  or 
peaked  at  the  root  of  the  tail  or  too  steep. 

12.  Legs  axd  Feet. — Medium  in  size  and  length;  straight:  nicely 
tapering;  wide  apart  and  well  set  under  the  body;  pastern  short  and 
strong.      Feet  short,  firm,  and  tough. 

Objections:  Legs  extremely  long  above;  set  too  close  together; 
hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  a  straight  line.  Feet  long,  slim,  and  weak; 
toes  spreading  and  crooked. 

13.  Tail. — Medium  length  at  the  base,  nicely  tapering,  and  rather 
bushy  at  the  point. 

Objections:     Extremely  heavy;  too  long  and  ropy 

14.  Coat. — Moderately  thick  and  fine;  straight;  smooth  and 
covering  the  body  well 

Objections:  Many  bristles;  hair  coarse,  harsh,  or  rough;  wavy  or 
curled;  swirls  not  evenly  laid  over  the  body. 

15.  Color. — Cherry,  without  admixtures 


18  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

Objections:  Very  dark  red,  or  any  shade  of  brown;  very  light  or 
pale  red;  black  spots  over  the  body;  black  flecks  on  the  belly  and  legs 
not  desired  but  admissible. 

16.  Size. — Boars  2  years  old  and  over  in  fair  show  condition 
should  weigh  600  pounds;  sows,  same  age  and  condition,  500  pounds; 
boars  18  months  old,  475  pounds,  and  sows,  400  pounds;  boars 
12  months  old,  350  pounds,  and  sows.  300  pounds;  boars  and  sows 
6  months  old,  150  pounds. 

Objections:     Overgrown  or  undersized. 

17.  Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous  and  animated.  Style 
free  and  easy. 

Objections:     Action  dull  and  stupid.      Style  awkward  and  wabbling. 

18.  Condition". — Healthy;  skin  free  from  any  scurf,  scales,  sores, 
and  mange;  flesh  evenly  laid  over  the  entire  body  and  free  from  lumps. 

Objections:  Unhealthy;  scurf,  sores,  or  mange;  too  fat  for  breeding 
purposes;  hair  harsh  and  standing  up;  poor  feeders,  etc. 

19.  Disposition. — Quiet  and  gentle;  easily  handled  or  driven. 
Objections:      Wild,  vicious,  or  stubborn. 


CHESTER    WHITE     SWINE 

11.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Chester  White  breed 

of  swine  originated  in  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  as  a 
result  of  crossing  the  common  white  swine  of  that  locality 
with  white  hogs  brought  from  Europe.  The  first  animals 
of  this  breed  were  extremely  large  and  coarse,  but  selection 
in  breeding  soon  reduced  the  size  and  established  a  finer 
quality  of  parts.  In  1865,  L.  B.  Silver,  of  Salem,  Ohio, 
purchased  some  Chester  White  swine  and  began  breeding 
with  the  purpose  of  securing  a  type  of  this  breed  of  large  size 
and  superior  quality.  As  a  result  of  his  breeding,  a  strain 
known  as  Ohio  Improved  Chester  White,  commonly  spoken 
of  as  O.  I.  C,  was  originated.  A  separate  herd  book  is 
maintained  by  breeders  of  this  strain.  Both  the  old  type  of 
Chester  Whites  and  the  O.  I.  C.  strain  have  been  developed 
to  the  extent  that  they  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  where  swine  are  kept. 

12.  Description. — In  Fig.  7  is  illustrated  a  boar  of  the 
Chester  White  breed.  The  Chester  White,  as  the  name 
implies,  is  a  white  breed.     Blue  specks,  known  as  freckles, 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  19 

are  often  found  on  the  skin  of  these  animals  and  are  not 
objected  to  by  judges,  but  black,  sandy  patches  in  the  hair 
or  on  the  hide  are  undesirable  and  will  bar  an  animal  from 
registration  in  the  breed  herd  books. 

In  conformation,  the  Chester  Whites  are  of  the  tyoical 
larddiog  shape.  They  have  short,  broad  heads,  and  slightly 
dished  faces.  The  ears  are  drooping  but  do  not  stand  out 
so  far  from  the  head  as  in  the  case  of  animals  of  the  Poland- 
China  breed.  In  width  and  depth,  Chester  Whites  are  similar 
to  the  Poland-Chinas,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  have  greater  length. 


One  weakness,  however,  that  is  sometimes  found  in  animals 
of  this  breed  is  that  although  they  have  good  width  at  the 
shoulders,  there  is  often  a  narrowness  toward  the  rear  of  the 
body,  thus  giving  a  wedge-shaped  form  which  results  in  a 
narrow  loin  and  poorly  developed  hams.  This  weakness  is 
guarded  against  by  breeders,  and,  it  is  believed,  will  soon 
disappear  from  the  breed. 

In  size,  the  Chester  Whites  are  large.  Mature  boars  in 
breeding  condition  should  weigh  about  GOO  pounds  and 
mature  sows  in  the  same  condition,  about  450  pounds.    Young 


20  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

animals  that  are  fattened  for  market  should  weigh  from 
about  250  to  275  pounds  at  G  months  of  age. 

The  breeding  and  feeding  qualities  of  the  Chester  Whites 
are  high  class.  Experiments  conducted  by  various  experi- 
ment stations  have  demonstrated  that  Chester  "Whites  take 
on  fat  at  a  rate  that  compares  favorably  with  the  rate  of 
other  breeds  of  the  lard  type.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is 
good,  although  too  much  fat  is  carried  in  the  bacon  for  the 
English  market. 

A  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  animal  of  this  breed, 
formulated  from  the  standard  of  excellence  in  use  by  the 
National  Chester  White  Record  Association,  is  given  herewith. 

1.  Head  axd  Face. — Short  and  broad  between  the  eyes.  Face 
slightly  dished,  cheeks  full. 

Objections:  Head  coarse.  Face  long  and  narrow;  too  much 
dished:  snout  coarse  and  thick,  or  too  long. 

2.  Eves. — Bright  and  full. 
Objections:     Deeply  sunken,  or  blind. 

3.  Ears. — Drooping,  fine,  and  silky;  pointing  forwards  and  a 
little  outwards;  well  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  body. 

Objections:  Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping,  and  lying  too 
near  the  face;  stiff,  erect,  or  too  round. 

4       Xeck. — Full,  deep,  short,  and  slightly  arched. 

Objections:     Long  and  narrow. 

.">  Jowl. — Full,  firm,  neat  and  carrying  fullness  well  back  to  the 
shoulders  and  brisket. 

Objections:  Flabby,  light,  too  thick  in  cheek;  tucked  up  under 
the  throat. 

6.  Shoulder. — Broad  and  deep;  thick  in  proportion  to  the  sides 
and  hams,  and  full  and  even  on  top. 

Obiectio>is:  Lacking  in  depth  or  width,  thick  beyond  the  line  of 
the  side  and  ham,  or  blade  too  prominent. 

7.  Chest. — Full  around  the  heart  and  back  of  the  shoulders;  ribs 
extending  well  down:  wide  and  full  back  of  the  front  legs. 

Objections:  Less  than  flank  measure,  or  creased  back  of  the 
shoulders. 

8.  Back. — Back  broad,  straight,  or  slightly  arched,  carrying 
width  well  back  of  hams,  and  of  medium  length. 

Objections:  Narrow ;  creasing  back  of  the  shoulders;  narrow  across 
the  loins;  swayed;  too  long  or  sunfish  shaped. 

9.  Sides  axd  Ribs. — Sides  full  and  deep,  carrying  well  down  and 
back.  Ribs  well  sprung  and  long,  carrying  fullness  and  depth  well 
back. 


g  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  21 

( Objections:  Sides  too  round  or  too  flat;  shallow  or  thin  at  the  flank. 
Ribs  too  flat  or  the  curve  too  short. 

10  Belly  and  Flank. — Belly  wide  and  straight.  Flank  well  let 
down  and  full. 

Objections:  Belly  sagging  or  narrow.  Flank  thin,  tucked  in,  or 
cut  up  too  high. 

11.  Ham  and  Rump. — Full,  broad,  deep;  holding  width  well  over 
back. 

Objections:  Xarrow  or  short;  steep  at  rump  or  cut  up  too  high 
in  the  crotch. 

12.  Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  of  medium  length,  strong,  and  straight; 
standing  well  up  on  toes. 

Objections:  Too  long  or  slim;  coarse;  crooked;  muscles  light; 
pastern  too  long,  slim,  or  flat.     Foot  long  or  sprawling. 

13.  Tail. — Well  set  on,  small,  smooth,  and  well  tapered. 
Objections:     Coarse;  too  large  or  too  prominent  at  the  root. 

14.  Coat. — Fine  and  silky  and  covering  the  body  well. 
Objections:     Coarse,  bristly,  harsh,  or  wiry. 

15.  Size  and  Condition. — Not  too  small  for  age;  hearty  and 
thriving. 

Objections:     Too  small,  weakly,  or  delicate. 

16.  Style  and  Symmetry. — A  harmonious  proportion  of  the 
above  points. 

Objections:  Too  much  development  in  some  points  and  lacking 
in  others. 

17.  Disposition. — Quiet  and  docile. 


MULE-FOOT    SWINE 

13.  Origin  and  Development. — The  origin  of  the  Mule- 
Foot  breed  of  swine  is  unknown.  Certain  breeders  claim  a 
knowledge  of  its  origin,  but  their  claims  are  discredited  by 
the  association  fostering  the  interests  of  the  breed.  Doubtless 
this  lack  of  information  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  breed  has 
only  recently  been  brought  to  public  attention.  The  National 
Mule-Foot  Hog  Record  Association  was  organized  in  1909, 
and  steps  were  taken  at  that  time  to  discover  the  facts  relating 
to  the  origin  of  the  breed.  The  Mule-Foot  swine  are  rapidly 
gaining  in  favor  in  certain  parts  of  Indiana,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
and  Minnesota,  where  they  are  found  in  considerable  numbers. 

14.  Description.  —In  Fig.  8  is  illustrated  a  boar  of  the 
Mule-Foot  breed  of  hogs.     The  animal  from  which  the  photo- 

243—6 


22 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWIXE 


28 


graph  for  this  illustration  was  made  is  Ohio  Chief,  owned  by 
Samuel  Jonns,  of  Ohio.  The  Mule-Foot  hogs  are  char- 
acterized by  a  solid  hoof,  which  resembles  that  of  the  mule, 
as  the  name  indicates.  This  gives  them  great  strength  in 
the  feet,  a  point  widely  exploited  by  their  admirers.  In 
color,  they  are  black,  although  white  points  are  admissible. 
It  is  claimed  for  the  breed  that  no  animal  has  ever  been 
known  to  have  hog  cholera,  but  this  claim  has  been  proved 
erroneous.  The  Mule-Foots  are  known  to  possess  great 
vitality  and  to  be  good  feeders. 


The  ideal  animal  of  the  breed  is  described  in  the  following 
standard  of  excellence  adopted  by  the  Xational  Mule-Foot 
Hog  Record  Association. 

1.  Head  and  Face. — Head  medium  length.  Face  broad  between 
the  eyes,  nearly  straight,  cheeks  full:  surface  even  and  regular. 

Objections:     Head  large,  coarse,  crooked,  or  much  dished. 

2.  Eyes.— Bright  and  lively;  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  surround- 
ings. 

Objections:  Small,  deep,  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired  by  fat  or 
other  causes. 

3.  Ears. — Medium  length,  thin  tipped,  slightly  inclined  outwards 
and  forwards,  knuckles  small  and  well  set  to  the  head. 


§28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  23 

Objections:  Large,  coarse,  thick;  large  <>r  long  knuckles  drooping 
or  not  under  good  control  of  the  animal. 

4.  Neck. — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders;  tapering  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  head. 

Objections:      Long,  thick,  or  bulky. 

5.  Jowl. — Full,  neat,  and  firm;  tapering  from  the  neck  to  the 
point. 

Objections:     Thin  or  flabby. 

6-  Chest. — Large,  dee]),  and  roomy;  full  girth;  extending  down 
even  with  the  line  of  the  belly. 

Objections:  Narrow  at  the  top  or  the  bottom;  small  girth;  cramped 
or  tucked  up. 

7.  Back  and  Loin. — Slightly  arched;  good  breadth,  with  uniform 
thickness  from  the  shoulders  to  the  hams;  full  at  loin. 

Objections:  Narrow,  creased,  or  drooped  behind  the  shoulders; 
surface  ridgy  or  uneven. 

8.  Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full;  smooth  form;  carrying  size  evenly 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  hams.  Ribs  strong  and  well  sprung  at  the 
top  and  the  bottom. 

Objections:  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby,  or  creased.  Ribs  not  well 
sprung. 

9.  Belly  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full;  devoid  of  coarseness. 
Flank  full  and  running  nearly  on  a  line  with  the  sides. 

Objections:     Belly  sagging  or  flabby;  coarse;  flank  thin  or  tucked  up. 

10.  Ham  and  Rump. — Ham  full,  long  and  deep.  Rump  slightly 
rounded  from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail;  buttock  full,  neat,  and 
firm. 

Objections:  Ham  narrow;  cut  up  too  high  in  the  crotch  Rump 
too  steep  or  too  narrow;  peaked  at  the  root  of  the  tail;  buttock  flabby. 

11.  Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  medium  length,  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  the  body;  wide  above  the  knee  and  hock,  rounded  and 
well  muscled  below;  tapering;  medium  bone;  pasterns  short  and  nearly 
upright.  Feet  solid,  short,  smooth,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its 
weight  with  ease. 

Objections:  Legs  too  long  or  too  short,  slim,  crooked,  or  coarse; 
muscles  weak  or  light;  joints  coarse,  not  tapering;  pasterns  too  long, 
crooked,  or  slender.      Feet  long,  slim,  weak,  or  turned  up. 

12.  Tail. — Medium  length,  straight,  or  slightly  curled. 
Objections:     Coarse,  long,  clumsy;  swinging  like  a  pendulum. 

13.  Coat. — Fine,  straight,  and  smooth. 
Objections:     Bristles  or  swirls;  too  coarse  or  curly. 

14.  Color. — Black;  white  points  admissible. 

Objections:  Too  much  white;  too  many  and  too  large  white  spots 
on  body. 

15.  Size. — Large  for  condition;  boar  '_'  years  old  and  over  should 
weigh  500  pounds,  and  sow  at  the  same  age  450  p<  >unds;  boar  IS  months 


24  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 

old  should  weigh  375  pounds,  and  sow  at  same  age  350  pounds;  boar 
or  sow  12  months  old  should  weigh  300  pounds:  boar  or  sow  6  months 
old  should  weigh  175  pounds. 

16.  Action  and  Style. — Active,  vigorous,  and   graceful.      Style 
attractive. 

Objections:     Dull,  sluggish,  or  clurr.- 

17.  Condition. — Healthy;   skin  free  from  defect;   flesh  smooth, 
firm,  and  evenly  laid  on. 

Objections:     Unhealth}-;   skin  scurfy,  scaly  or  mangy;  hair  harsh, 
not  of  good  growth. 

18.  Disposition. — Docile,  quiet,  and  easily  handled. 
Objections:     Cross,  restless,  nervous,  sluggish,  or  without  ambition. 


CHESHIRE     SWINE 

15.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Cheshire  breed  of 
swine  originated  in  Jefferson  County,  Xew  York.  Evidence 
indicates  that  the  breed  is  the  result  of  crossing  Large 
Yorkshire  and  White  Suffolk  swine  with  the  native  white 
swine  of  Jefferson  County.  The  reason  for  the  use  of  the 
name  Cheshire  in  connection  with  the  breed  is  unknown. 
Although  the  Cheshires  have  been  bred  since  1S70,  there  are 
few  animals  of  the  breed  outside  of  Xew  York  State. 

16.  Description. — Cheshires  are  white  in  color.  Black 
spots  sometimes  occur  on  the  skins  of  pure-breds  and  although 
objectionable  do  not  disqualify  them.  The  animals  are 
smooth,  compact,  and  of  symmetrical  proportions.  As  a  rule, 
they  mature  early.  The)*  are  of  medium  size,  as  a  breed, 
but  frequently  specimens  are  found  that  are  as  large  as  the 
largest  individuals  of  the  lard-type  breeds.  The  sows  are 
good  mothers  and  are  very  prolific.  The  feeding  qualities 
of  the  animals  of  the  breed  have  not  been  thoroughly 
investigated. 

A  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  Cheshire,  formulated 
from  the  standard  of  excellence  for  the  breed  as  adopted  by 
the  Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  Association,  is  given  in  the 
following. 

1.  Head  and  Face. — Head  short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in 
proportion  to  length  of  body.  Face  somewhat  dished;  wide  between 
the  e 


§  28 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


25 


2.  Ears.— Small,    erect,    in    old    animals    often    slightly    pointed 
fi  awards. 

3.  Neck. — Short. 

1      Shoulders. — Broad  and  full. 

5.  Hips. — Broad. 

6.  Body. — Long  and  deep. 

7.  Ham. — Broad,  nearly  straight  with  the  back  and  running  well 
down  toward  the  hock. 

8.  Legs  and  Feet. — Long,  slim;  set  well  apart  and  supporting 
the  body  on  the  toes. 

9.  Tail. — Small  and  slim. 

10.  Hair. — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity;  color,  white. 

11.  Size. — When    mature  and  well    fattened    should  dress   from 
400  to  600  pounds. 


SMALL    YORKSHIRE     SWINE 

17.     Origin  and  Development. — The  Small  Yorkshire  breed 

of    swine    originated    in    England.      Little    is    known    of    the 
foundation  stock,  but  it  is  believed  they  were  Chinese  swine. 


Pig.  9 


Animals  of  the  Small  Yorkshire  breed,  and  strains  developed 
from  it,  were  popular  with  the  early  Shorthorn  cattle 
breeders  of  England.     The    introduction   of   the   breed   into 


26  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

America  took  place  early  in  the  history  of  the  country.  The 
best  known  herds  in  America  are  descendants  of  animals 
imported  during  the  years  from  1872  to  1878. 

18.  Description. — In  Fig.  9  is  illustrated  a  Small  York- 
shire boar;  the  photograph  for  this  illustration  was  furnished 
by  Prof.  C.  S.  Plumb,  of  the  Ohio  State  University.  Small 
Yorkshires  are  white,  with  occasional  black  spots  on  the 
skin.  They  are  very  small  and  compact.  Animals  of  this 
breed  are  noted  for  quick-maturing  qualities,  and  are  well 
adapted  for  producing  early  market  pork.  Their  meat  is 
fine  grained  and  tender,  but  inclined  to  be  rather  fat. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  animal 
of  the  breed  as  compiled  from  the  standard  of  excellence 
adopted  by  the  American  Yorkshire  Club. 

1.  General  Outline. — Wide  and  deep  in  proportion  to  the 
length,  and  straight  above  and  below;  short  in  head,  neck,  body,  and 
limbs. 

2.  Outline  of  Head. — Short,  abrupt,  inclining  to  fine;  possessed 
of  much  dish,  and  downward  springing  under  the  jaws. 

3.  Forehead  and  Poll. — Wide. 

4.  Eyes. — Medium  size,  clear,  and  bright. 

5.  Jowl. — Large,  smooth,  and  carried  well  back  toward  the  neck. 

6.  Snout. — Short,  turning  upwards  somewhat,  with  a  deep 
indenture  or  curve  immediately  above  it. 

7.  Ears. — Small,  thin,  erect,  and  inclining  slightly  forwards 
rather  than  backwards  at  the  tips. 

8.  Xeck. — Short,  wide,  and  deep,  the  width  slightly  increasing 
toward  the  shoulders. 

9.  Outline  of  Body. — Short,  broad,  deep,  and  straight  above, 
below,  and  on  the  sides. 

10.  Back. — Very  broad,  of  even  width,  and  straight  from  the 
withers  to  the  tail  head. 

11.  Shoulder. — Large,  smoothly  and  evenly  developed,  and 
blending  perfectly  with  the  neck  and  crops. 

12.  Arm  and  Thigh. — Moderately  wide,  tapering  nicely  down, 
and  inclining  to  be  short. 

13.  Brisket. — Wide  and  on  level  with  the  under  line. 

14.  Side. — Deep,  thick  in  every  part;  straight  and  even  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  hip. 

1  .">.     Ribs. — Widely  and  deeply  sprung 

16.  Heart  and  Flank  Girth. — Excellent  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  body  and  about  equal. 


§28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  27 

17.  Hind  Quarters. — Relatively  long;  broad  in  every  part  and 
deep,  with  but  little  lowering  toward  the  tail  head. 

18.  Ham. — Large,    well    let    down    at    the   thigh    and    twist,    and 
inclined  to  be  straight  behind. 

19.  Twist.— Well  down  and  full. 

2(1.  Tail. — Fine,  short,  and  inclined  to  curl. 

21.  Legs. — Short,   fine  rather  than   o>arse;  strong,  straight,  and 
placed  well  apart 

22.  Hair. — Abundant,  fine,  and  even  in  quality. 

23.  Skin. — Smooth,  white,  and  free  from  creases  and  scales. 

24.  Color. — White  on  every  part. 

25.  Movement. — Gentle  and  easy  but  not  sluggish. 


VICTORIA    SWINE 

19.  Origin    and    Development. — The    Victoria    breed    of 

swine  originated  in  Lake  County,  Indiana,  as  a  result  of 
crossing  Poland-Chinas,  Berkshires,  Chester  Whites,  and  a 
breed  of  white  hogs  from  England.  A  strain  of  Victorias 
known  as  the  Curtis  Victoria  originated  in  Saratoga  County, 
New  York,  but  so  far  as  is  known  there  are  now  no  pure-bred 
Curtis  Victorias  in  existence.  Although  the  breed  originated 
about  1870,  it  is  not  well  known,  there  being  but  few  breed- 
ers in  the  United  States. 

20.  Description. — In  color,  Victoria  swine  are  white,  with 
occasional  dark  spots  in  the  skin.  The  ears  are  erect  or 
slightly  drooping,  and  the  animals  have  a  good  coat  of  fine, 
soft  hair;  the  head  is  small  and  the  face  is  medium  dished; 
the  bones  are  fine,  and  the  back  is  straight,  broad,  and  level. 
The  Victorias  are  said  to  be  prolific  hogs,  easy  to  keep  in 
condition,  and  readily  fattened  at  any  age.  They  are  of 
medium  size;  mature  sows  should  weigh  about  450  pounds 
and  mature  boars  about  GOO  pounds. 


ESSEX    SWINE 


21.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Essex  breed  of  swine 
originated  in  the  county  of  Essex,  England,  as  a  result  of 
crossing   Neapolitan   swine   with   the   native   hogs   of   Essex. 


28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

It  is  thought  also  that  Berkshire  and  Suffolk  blood  was  used 
in  the  crossing.  At  first  the  Essex  swine  were  black  and 
white  in  color,  but  later  the  black  color  was  established. 
These  early  Essex  hogs  became  of  weak  constitutions,  as 
a  result  of  inbreeding,  and  the  breed  lost  in  favor.  The 
Improved  Essex  strain  was  developed  by  a  tenant  of  the 
originator  of  the  Essex  breed.  Animals  of  this  strain  were 
larger  in  size  and  possessed  more  vigor  than  those  of  the 
original  type.  The  Essex  breed  is  known  in  England  as  the 
Small  Black  breed,  or  Black  Suffolk.  The  breed  was  intro- 
duced into  America  at  an  early  date,  but  has  never  become 
generally  popular. 

22.  Description. — Essex  swine  are  black;  animals  with 
white  on  them  are  not  admitted  to  registry  by  the  record  asso- 
ciation. They  are  small,  compact  animals,  set  on  short  legs. 
The  face  is  dished,  the  snout  short,  and  the  shoulders  and 
hams  well  developed.  The  animals  are  quick  maturing,  and 
easily  fattened;  the  meat  is  fine  grained,  but  carries  an 
excessive  quantity  of  fat.  The  breed  does  not  stand  very 
high  in  prolificacy. 

BREEDS    OF    THE    BACON    TYPE 


LARGE    YORKSHIRE    SWINE 

23.     Origin  and  Development. — The  Large  Yorkshire  breed 

of  swine  originated  in  England.  For  many  years  large, 
awkward,  white  swine  have  existed  in  certain  parts  of  that 
country,  particularly  in  Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire,  and  Norfolk, 
and  it  is  from  these  animals  that  the  Large  Yorkshires  were 
developed.  The  first  improvement  in  these  swine  was  brought 
about  by  crossing  them  with  a  breed  known  as  Leicester. 
This  cross  was  further  improved  by  breeding  the  best  sows 
to  Small  Yorkshires.  In  later  years,  breeding  has  been  for  the 
purpose  of  developing  the  sides  of  the  animals  and  conse- 
quently the  bacon-producing  qualities.  The  first  Large  York- 
shires were  imported   into   the   United   States   in    1S92,  and 


§  28 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


29 


were  taken  to  Minnesota.  The  breed  has  since  spread  to 
many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  better 
known  at  the  present  time  in  the  eastern  provinces  of 
Canada  and  in  Minnesota  than  elsewhere  in  America. 

The  American  Yorkshire  Club  has  charge  of  the  registration 
of  both  Large  Yorkshires  and  Small  Yorkshires  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

24.  Description. — In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  boar  of  the  Large 
Yorkshire  breed.     The  hogs  of  this  breed  are  white  in  color, 


with  occasional  blue  spots  on  the  skin.  They  are  large  in 
size,  rangy,  inclined  to  be  long  in  the  leg  and  coarse  in  bone, 
and  are  somewhat  slow  in  corning  to  maturity.  They  have 
extreme  length  and  depth  of  body,  and  their  meat  is  well 
streaked  with  fat  and  lean,  being  especially  desirable  for 
bacon  purposes.  In  fact,  Yorkshire  bacon  is  considered  to 
be  the  best  obtainable. 

The  ideal  Large  Yorkshire  is  described  in  the  following 
detailed  standard  of  excellence  compiled  from  that  adopted 
by  the  American  Yorkshire  Club. 


30  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

1.  Forehead  axd  Poll. — White. 

2.  Eves. — Medium  size,  clear,  and  bright. 

3.  Jowl. — Medium,  not  carried  too  far  back  toward  the  neck,  and 
not  flabby. 

4.  Snout. — Turning  upwards  with  a  short  curve,  increasing  with 
age. 

5.  Ears. — Medium  in  size,  standing  well  out  from  the  head;  of 
medium  erection  and  inclining  slightly  forwards. 

6.  Xeck. — Of  medium  length,  fair  width  and  depth,  rising  gradu- 
ally from  the  poll  to  the  withers;  muscular,  but  not  gross;  evenly  con- 
necting the  head  with  the  body. 

7.  Outline  of  Body. — Long,  deep,  and  of  medium  breadth; 
equally  wide  at  the  shoulders,  sides,  and  hams;  top  line  slightly  arched, 
bottom  line  straight. 

8.  Back. — Moderately  broad,  even  in  width  from  end  to  end; 
strong  in  loin;  short  ribs  of  good  length. 

9.  Shoulders. — Large,  but  not  massive;  not  open  above. 

10.  Arms  axd  Thighs. — Broad  and  of  medium  length  and  develop- 
ment. 

11.  Brisket. — Wide  and  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  line. 

12.  Sides. — Long,  deep,  straight,  and  even  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  hip. 

13.  Ribs. — Well  arched  and  deep. 

14.  Heart  Girth  axd  Flaxk  Girth. — Good  and  about  equal. 

15.  Hixd  Quarters. — Long,  to  correspond  with  the  shoulders  and 
sides:  deep,  with  moderate  and  gradual  droop  to  the  tail. 

16.  Hams. — Large,  well  let  down  on  the  thigh  and  twist,  and 
rear  outline  somewhat  rounded. 

17.  Twist. — Well  down  and  meaty. 

18.  Tail. — Medium;  not  much  inclined  to  curl. 

19.  Legs. — Medium  in  length;  strong;  not  coarse,  but  standing 
straight  and  firm. 

20.  Hair. — Abundant,  long,  of  medium  fineness,  and  without  any 
bristles. 

21.  Skix. — Smooth  and  white;  without  scurf;  dark  spots  in  skin 
do  not  disqualify. 

22.  Color. — White  on  every  part. 

23.  Movement. — Active  but  not  restless. 


TAMWORTH     SWINE 

25.     Origin   and   Development. — The  Tamworth   breed   ol 

swine  originated  in  central  England,  notably  in  the  county  of 
Stafford.  The  breed  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  existence  and  the 
ancestry   is   obscure.     The   early  animals  of  the  Tamworth 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  31 

breed  were  long  and  narrow,  and  exceedingly  active,  but 
those  of  the  present  day  are  more  compact  and  less  active. 
Improvement  was  made  by  selection  rather  than  by  crossing. 
Not  many  animals  of  the  breed  are  found  in  the  United  States, 
but  they  are  found  in  every  province  of  Canada,  being 
especially  numerous  in  Ontario. 

26  Description. — A  typical  Tamworth  boar  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1 1.  The  color  of  the  Tamworths  is  somewhat  variable, 
a  golden-red  hair  on  flesh-colored  skin  that  is  free  from  black 
being  preferred.     The  snout,   as   may  be  seen   in   the  illus- 


tration, is  very  long  and  straight,  the  ears  are  large  and 
pointed,  and  the  legs  are  long.  The  animals  have  long,  deep 
bodies  and  the  meat  from  their  carcasses  is  well  fitted  for 
bacon  purposes.  As  compared  with  Poland-Chinas,  Berk- 
shires,  and  other  animals  of  the  lard  type,  they  seem  long 
and  narrow.  In  constitution,  they  take  high  rank,  being 
especially  strong  and  vigorous. 

The  standard  of  excellence  for  Tamworths,  as  adopted  by 
the  National  Pig  Breeders'  Association  of  Great  Britain  and 
used  by  the  Tamworth  Association  of  America,  is  as  follows: 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

1  Color. — Golden-red  hair  on  a  flesh-eolored  skin;  free  from 
black. 

2.  Head. — Fairly  long;  snout  moderately  long  and  quite  straight; 
face  slightly  dished;  wide  between  the  ears. 

3.  Ears. — Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe;  carried  rigid  and 
inclining  slightly  forwards. 

4.  Xeck. — Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  the  boar. 

5.  Chest. — Wide  and  deep. 

6.  Shoulders. — Fine,  slanting,  and  well  set. 

7.  Legs. — Strong  and  shapely,  with  plenty  of  bone,  and  set  well 
toward  the  outside  of  the  body. 

8       Pasterns. — Strong  and  sloping. 

9.  Feet. — Strong  and  of  fair  size. 

10.  Back. — Long  and  straight. 

11.  Loins. — Strong  and  broad. 

12.  Tail. — Set  high  and  well  tasseled. 

13.  Sides. — Long  and  deep. 

14.  Ribs. — Well  sprung  and  extending  well  up  to  the  flank. 

15.  Belly. — Deep,  with  straight  bottom  line. 

16.  Flanks. — Full  and  well  let  down. 

17.  Quarters. — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  the  hip  to  the  tail. 

18.  Hams. — Broad  and  full;  well  let  down  to  the  hocks. 

19.  Coat. — Abundant,  long,  straight,  and  fine. 

20.  Action. — Firm  and  free. 

Objections:  Black  hair;  very  light  or  ginger  hair;  curly  coat; 
coarse  mane;  black  spots  on  skin;  slouching  or  drooping  ears;  short  or 
turned-up  snout;  heavy  shoulders;  wrinkled  skin;  inbent  knees; 
hollowness  back  of  the  shoulders. 


HAMPSHIRE     SWINE 

27.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Hampshire  breed  of 
swine,  formerly  known  as  the  Thin  Rind  breed,  is  indigenous 
to  England.  Like  all  other  breeds  of  swine,  the  Hampshire 
has  been  developed  from  coarse,  ungainly  animals,  by  careful 
selection  in  breeding.  Importations  into  the  United  States 
have  been  made  since  about  1830.  Most  of  the  animals  of 
the  breed  found  in  this  country  are  in  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Kentucky,  and  Missouri. 

28.  Description. — The  Hampshire  is  a  black  animal  with 
a  broad  white  belt  encircling  the  body  and  with  white  fore 
legs.     In  Fig.  12  is  showm  a  typical  boar  of  the  breed.     The 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  33 

ears  of  the  Hampshire  are  erect,  which,  together  with  the 
peculiar  marking  of  white,  makes  them  easy  to  distinguish 
from  animals  of  other  breeds.  They  have  a  rather  long 
snout  and  narrow  face,  and  incline  somewhat  to  smallness 
of  bone. 

The  Hampshires  can  be  fed  to  produce  a  good  selling  weight 
of  hog  at  an  early  age,  and  by  feeding  to  maturity  they  make 


Fir,.  1 


good  heavyweight  hogs.     As  breeders,  they  are  prolific  and 
are  said  to  possess  good  constitutions. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  description  of  an  ideal  animal 
of  the  breed,  formulated  from  the  standard  of  excellence 
adopted  by  the  Hampshire  Swine  Record  Association. 

1.  Head  axd  Face. — Head  medium  length,  rather  narrow;  cheeks 
not  full.  Face  nearly  straight  and  of  medium  width  between  the 
eyes;  surface  even  and  regular. 

Objections:  Head  large,  coarse,  and  ridgy;  nose  crooked  or  much 
dished. 

2.  Eyes. — Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  sur- 
roundings. 

Objections:  Small,  deep,  obscure,  or  vision  impaired  by  fat  or 
other  cause. 


34  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  §  28 

3.  Ears. — Medium  length;  thin  and  slightly  inclined  outwards 
and  forwards. 

Objections:  Large,  coarse,  thick;  large  or  long  knuckles;  drooping 
or  not  under  good  control  of  the  animal. 

•4.  Xeck. — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  and  tapering  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  head. 

Objections:     Long,  thick,  or  bulky. 

5.  Jowl. — Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point;  neat  and  firm. 
Objections:     Large,  broad,  deep,  or  flabby. 

6.  Shoulder. — Deep,  of  medium  width  and  fullness,  and  well 
in  line  with  the  back. 

Objections:  Xarrow  on  the  top  or  the  bottom;  thick  beyond  the 
line  of  the  side  and  ham. 

7.  Chest. — Large,  deep,  and  roomy;  full  girth;  extending  down 
even  with  the  line  of  the  belly. 

Objections:  Xarrow  at  the  top  or  the  bottom;  small  girth;  cramped 
or  tucked  up. 

8.  Back  and  Loin.— Back  straight  or  slightly  arched;  medium 
breadth,  with  nearly  uniform  thickness  from  shoulders  to  hams  and 
full  at  loins;  sometimes  higher  at  hips  than  at  shoulders. 

Objections:  Xarrow,  creased,  or  drooped  behind  shoulders;  surface 
ridgy  or  uneven. 

9.  Sides  axd  Ribs. — -Sides  full,  smooth,  firm,  and  carry  size  evenly 
from  shoulders  to  hams.  Ribs  strong,  well  sprung  at  the  top  and  the 
bottom. 

Objections:  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby,  or  creased.  Ribs  not  well 
sprung. 

10.  Belly  axd  Flank. — Belly  straight  and  full,  without  grossness. 
Flank  full  and  running  nearly  on  a  fine  with  the  sides. 

Objections:     Belly  sagging  or  flabby.      Flank  thin  or  tucked. 

11.  Ham  axd  Rump. — Ham  of  medium  width,  lank,  and  deep. 
Rump  slightly  rounded  from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail:  buttock 
full,  neat,  and  firm;  devoid  of  flabbiness  or  excessive  fat. 

Objections:  Ham  narrow;  cut  up  too  high  in  the  crotch;  buttock 
flabby.      Rump  too  fat,  narrow,  steep,  or  peaked  at  root  of  the  tail. 

12.  Legs  axd  Feet. — Legs  of  medium  length,  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  the  bodv:  wide  above  knees  and  hocks,  and  rounded 
and  well  muscled  below:  tapering;  bone  medium;  pasterns  short  and 
nearly  upright.  Toes  short  and  firm,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its 
weight  with  ease. 

Objections:  Legs  too  long,  slim,  crooked,  coarse,  or  short;  weak; 
muscles  above  hock  and  knee  bones  large  and  coarse  and  legs  without 
taper;  pasterns  too  long  to  correspond  with  the  length  of  leg;  too 
crooked  or  too  slender.  Feet  long,  slim,  and  weak;  toes  spreading, 
too  long,  crooked,  or  turned  up. 

13.  Tail. — Medium  lensrth  and  slightly  curled. 


§  28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  35 

Objections:     Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  or  swinging  like  a  pendulum. 

14.  Coat. — Fine,  straight,  and  smooth. 
Objections:     Bristles  or  swirls;  coarse  or  curly. 

15.  Color. — Black,  with  the  exception  of  a  white  belt  encircling 
the  body,  including  the  fore  legs. 

Objections:  White  running  high  on  the  hind  legs  or  extending 
more  than  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  body;  solid  black. 

16.  Size. — Large  for  condition;  boar  2  years  old  and  over  should 
weigh  450  pounds,  and  sow  at  the  same  age  400  pounds;  boar  at 
18  months  350  pounds  and  sow  325  pounds;  boar  or  sow  at  12  months 
300  pounds;  and  at  6  months,  140  pounds. 

17.  Action  and  Style. — Action  active,  vigorous,  and  quick. 
Style  attractive  and  graceful. 

Objections:     Dull,  sluggish,  and  clumsy. 

18.  Condition. — Healthy;  skin  free  from  all  defects;  flesh  evenly 
laid  on  and  smooth  and  firm;  not  patchy  or  gross. 

Objections:  Skin  scurfy,  scaly,  mangy,  or  otherwise  unhealthy; 
hair  harsh  or  unhealthy. 

19.  Disposition. — Docile,  quiet,  and  easily  handled. 
Objections:     Cross,  restless,  vicious,  or  listless. 


SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING 


SWINE   FEEDING 

FEEDING  IN  GENERAL 

1.  The  feeding  of  swine  should  receive  much  consideration 
from  hog  raisers.  The  hog  can  be  raised  on  any  kind  of  farm, 
and,  if  properly  fed,  will  bring  the  owner  a  profit.  Too  often, 
however,  the  feeding  of  swine  is  neglected.  It  is  thought  by 
some  that  the  hog  is  an  animal  to  which  unwholesome  or 
spoiled  feed  can  be  fed,  and  that  this  feed  will  be  digested  and 
assimilated.  Although  the  hog  is  an  omnivorous  creature, 
nevertheless  its  feed  should  be  chosen  with  care  and  should 
be  good  and  palatable.  This  does  not  mean  that  kitchen 
wastes  should  not  be  utilized  as  swine  feed,  but  whenever  they 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  they  should  be  in  a  wholesome, 
unspoiled    condition. 

2.  Moldy  grain  should  not  be  fed  to  swine,  as  it  is  liable 
to  make  the  animals  sick.  Soft  corn,  that  is,  corn  that  is 
immature  when  cribbed,  is  also  an  undesirable  swine  feed. 
Corn  of  this  kind  that  has  become  frozen  before  it  is  ripe  is 
liable  to  poison  hogs  to  which  it  is  fed.  In  fact,  many  hog 
raisers  imagine  that  their  hogs  die  of  hog  cholera  when  death 
is  due  to  the  use  of  immature  frosted  corn.  Soft  corn  that 
has  not  been  frozen  can  sometimes  be  utilized  as  swine  feed, 
but  it  is  much  inferior  to  mature  hard  corn  for  making  gains 
in  fattening  animals. 

In  connection  with  the  use  of  spoiled  grain  as  swine 
feed,  a  word  should  be  said  about  the  use  of  what  is  termed 

COPYRIGHTED     BY     INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK     COMPANY.        ALL    RIOHTS     RESERVED 

I  29 


2  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

blackened  grain.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  or  rye,  if  not  properly 
cared  for  while  going  through  the  sweat,  will  often  be  slightly 
blackened  as  a  result  of  the  heating  that  occurs.  Grain  of 
this  kind,  especially  if  only  slightly  charred,  is  not  injurious 
to  swine,  and  very  frequently  the  farmer  can  purchase  a  large 
quantity  at  a  price  that  will  warrant  its  use. 

3.  Sanitary  conditions  about  the  places  where  hogs  are 
fed  should  not  be  disregarded.  Too  often,  unused  portions 
of  feed  will  be  left  in  the  trough  to  become  moldy,  and  thereby 
injurious  to  the  health  of  the  animals.  It  will  be  found  that 
hogs  will  make  better  gains  in  weight  and  will  be  more  thrifty 
generally  if  careful  sanitary  conditions  about  the  feeding  lot 
are  observed. 

4.  The  number  of  times  that  a  hog  should  be  fed  during 
a  day  and  the  time  that  feeding  should  be  done  are  matters 
of  concern  to  hog  raisers.  Persons  of  experience  along  this 
line  claim  that  swine  should  be  fed  only  twice  a  day.  They 
state  that  the  hog's  health  will  be  better  and  that  larger  profits 
will  be  made  if  thus  fed  than  if  fed  oftener.  The  first  feeding 
should  be  done  in  the  morning — in  the  summer  at  about  8  or 
9  o'clock,  and  in  the  winter,  say,  about  \  hour  later.  The 
hog  is  naturally  a  late  riser,  and  for  this  reason  late  feeding 
in  the  morning  is  preferable  to  early  feeding.  In  winter, 
too,  a  hog  seems  to  prefer  the  warm  nest  of  his  sleeping 
quarters  to  the  chill  morning  air  of  the  feeding  lot.  The  time 
of  day  at  which  the  second  portion  of  feed  should  be  given, 
will  depend  on  the  season.  In  winter,  it  should  be  as  early  as 
4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  animal  will  then  have  a 
chance  to  eat  before  going  to  its  nest  for  the  night.  If  fed 
much  later  than  this,  the  animal  will  be  routed  out  of  its  nest. 
In  summer,  the  feed  may  be  given  about  an  hour  later, 
for  the  reason  that  the  hog  does  not  seek  its  nest  so  early. 
Hogs  should  not  be  fed  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  especially 
in  the  summer  time,  because  they  are  liable  to  become 
overheated. 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING 


SWINE  FEEDS 

5.  Grains. — Some  kind  of  grain  is  nearly  always  included 
in  a  ration  for  swine.  The  grain  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose  is  corn,  largely  because  of  its  fattening  tendency 
and  because  hogs  nearly  always  thrive  when  this  grain  is 
part  of  a  ration.  Corn,  however,  must  be  used  judiciously, 
or  bad  effects  will  result.  Only  a  part  of  the  ration  should  be 
corn.  An  experiment  to  determine  whether  or  not  corn 
alone  is  satisfactory  as  feed  for  swine  was  made  a  few  years 
ago  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station.  A  lot  of  pigs  3  months 
old  that  weighed  about  50  pounds  each  were  fed  for  a  period 
of  6  months  on  corn  only.  At  the  end  of  this  period,  it  was 
found  that  each  pig  had  gained  only  20  pounds  in  weight, 
and  that  21  pounds  of  corn  was  required  to  make  1  pound 
of  gain.  At  the  same  time,  a  similar  lot  of  pigs  were  fed  on  a 
properly  balanced  ration  that  included  corn  as  the  grain  part. 
Each  of  these  pigs  gained  250  pounds  in  the  same  time  that 
each  of  the  first  lot  gained  20  pounds,  and  the  number  of 
pounds  of  feed  required  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  in  the 
second  lot  was  only  4.6  as  compared  with  21  pounds  for  the 
first  lot.  The  experiment  proved  that  corn  is  valuable  as  the 
grain  part  of  a  ration  for  hogs,  and  that  it  is  not  advisable 
to  use  it  as  the  sole  feed  of  the  animals. 

6.  Oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  rye  are  also  valuable  grains  for 
hog  feed.  None  of  them,  however,  is  so  fattening  as  corn.  If 
fed  as  the  principal  grain  of  a  ration,  they  are  better  adapted 
for  the  production  of  the  bacon  type  of  hog  than  the  lard  type. 
Most  of  these  grains  are  used  more  extensively  for  other  pur- 
poses than  as  swine  feed,  but  whenever  they  can  be  purchased 
at  a  suitable  price  they  can  be  profitably  used  for  the  feed- 
ing of  swine.  As  has  already  been  mentioned,  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  procure  oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  rye  that  have  been 
blackened  by  heating.  Whenever  these  grains  can  be  pur- 
chased at  a  reasonable  price,  they  may  well  be  made  a  part 
of  the  swine  ration,  for  blackened  grains  are  as  useful  so  far 
as  food  value  is  concerned,  as  grains  not  blackened. 


4  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

7.  Buckwheat  is  sometimes  fed  to  swine.  Especially  is 
this  true  in  regions  where  it  is  grown  extensively.  Like 
wheat,  buckwheat  is  sometimes  injured  so  that  it  cannot  be 
made  into  flour,  and  it  may  then  be  profitably  used  as  swine 
feed. 

8.  Grain  By-Products. — Besides  the  grains  themselves, 
the  grain  by-products  are  very  often  used  as  swine  feed.  The 
by-products  obtained  in  the  milling  of  wheat  are  especially 
valuable,  as  all  of  them  are  rich  in  protein.  They  include 
bran,  shorts,  middlings,  and  screenings.  The  by-products 
of  oats  are  oat  hulls  and  oat  feed.  The  former  of  these  is  of 
little  value  because  it  consists  largely  of  crude  fiber,  but  the 
latter  can  often  be  used  to  advantage,  as  it  contains  about 
15  or  16  per  cent,  of  protein.  The  by-products  obtained  in 
the  milling  of  rye  are  rye  bran,  which  contains  15  per  cent, 
of  protein,  and  rye  shorts,  which  contains  18  per  cent.  Both 
of  these  are  sometimes  used  as  swine  feed. 

Other  small  grain  by-products  are  rice  bran,  rice  hulls, 
rice  polish,  buckwheat  hulls,  buckwheat  bran,  and  buckwheat 
middlings.  Of  these,  rice  hulls  and  buckwheat  hulls  are  the 
poorest  for  hog  feed,  because  they  are  made  up  largely  of 
crude  fiber.  Rice  bran,  rice  polish,  and  buckwheat  bran 
contain  about  12  per  cent,  of  protein,  while  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings contain  as  high  as  28  per  cent,  of  protein. 

Brewers1  grains  and  malt  sprouts  are  grain  by-products 
obtained  from  breweries.  The  grains  when  dried  contain 
about  20  per  cent,  of  protein,  and  the  sprouts  about  27  per 
cent.  These  by-products  are  extensively  used  for  feeding 
swine. 

Gluten  meal  and  gluten  feed,  which  are  corn  by-products, 
are  often  used  as  swine  feeds.  The  meal  contains  on  an 
average  about  33  per  cent,  of  protein  and  the  feed  about 
24  per  cent. 

Of  the  grain  by-products  mentioned  above,  the  ones  best 
adapted  for  swine  feeding  are  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  buck- 
wheat middlings,  brewers'  grains,  malt  sprouts,  and  wheat 
middlings. 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  5 

9.  Cottonseed  and  Linseed  Meals.— The  meals  obtained 
from  cottonseed  and  flaxseed,  known  respectively  as  cotton- 
seed meal  and  linseed  meal  are  similar  in  some  respects  to  the 
grain  by-products  just  mentioned.  These  meals  are  especially 
rich  in  protein,  cottonseed  meal  averaging  about  45  per  cent, 
and  linseed  meal  about  35  per  cent.  Although  cottonseed 
meal  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  protein  feeds,  it  is  not 
particularly  well  adapted  for  the  feeding  of  swine.  In  the 
meal,  there  are  always  small  quantities  of  cotton  fiber,  and 
when  it  is  fed  to  hogs  these  fibers  are  likely  to  form  into  a 
mass  in  the  intestines  or  stomach,  sometimes  causing  the 
death  of  the  hog.  If  used  at  all  for  hog  feeding,  linseed  meal 
must  be  given  in  small  quantities,  as  an  excessive  quantity 
is  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  animals. 

10.  Beans  and  Peas.— The  leguminous  feeds,  beans  and 
peas,  either  whole  or  ground  into  meal,  arc  useful  as  swine 
food.  They  are  irch  in  partem  and  are  therefore  especially 
suitable  for  mixing  with  corn  to  produce  a  ration  that  is  less 
fattening  than  if  com  alone  is  used.  For  the  feeding  of  bacon 
hogs,  these  leguminous  feeds  are  well  adapted.  They  include 
soybeans,  cowpeas,  garden  peas,  and  the  meals  made  from 
them. 

11.  Succulent  Feeds. — Swine  need  a  certain  quantity  of 
succulent  feed.  Vegetables  of  any  kind  are  often  included 
in  the  ration  to  supply  a  part  or  all  of  the  succulent  feed 
required.  Sugar  beets,  mangel  wurzels,  and  turnips  are  fre- 
quently used  for  this  purpose,  and  small  or  otherwise  unmar- 
ketable potatoes  can  often  be  disposed  of  to  advantage  by 
feeding  them  to  swine.  Sweet  potatoes,  especially  in  places 
where  they  are  abundantly  grown,  are  often  used  as  swine 
feed.  Pumpkins  also  make  a  good  feed  for  swine.  They 
should  be  broken  into  small  pieces  and  thrown  into  the  hog 
lots  or  pastures.  They  are  greatly  relished  by  the  hogs  and 
are  said  to  act  beneficailly  on  the  kidneys  of  these  animals. 

In  the  summer,  succulent  feed  for  hogs  can  be  provided 
in  the  form  of  a  pasture.  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  best  pastures 
for  swine.     Red  clover  in  the  North  and  Crimson  clover  in 


6  SWINE  FEEDING  AXD  JUDGING  §  29 

the  South  are  valuable  plants  for  a  swine  pasture.  A  blue- 
grass  pasture  in  which  there  is  a  mixture  of  White  clover  is  a 
desirable  one  for  swine  during  spring,  early  summer,  and  fall, 
but  in  late  summer  these  pastures  generally  dry  out  so  much 
that  some  other  form  of  green  feed  must  be  supplied  for  a 
time.  Timothy  while  young  and  before  it  forms  the  stem 
is  a  good  plant  for  hog  pastures ;  so  also  is  either  oats  or  rye. 
Winter  vetch  and  oats  and  peas  mixed  are  also  frequently 
used  for  pasturing  hogs. 

12.  Other  succulent  green  feeds  used  for  feeding  swine 
are  green  sweet  corn,  green  field  corn,  and  green  sorghum. 
Sweet  corn  can  be  planted  at  such  a  time  that  it  will  be  ready 
for  use  when  pastures  are  dry.  It  is  fed  at  about  the  roasting- 
ear  stage,  the  whole  stalk  with  ear  attached  being  thrown  into 
the  feeding  lot.  Green  field  corn  is  used  in  the  same  manner. 
As  a  rule,  the  field  corn  comes  into  the  roasting-ear  stage 
a  little  later  than  the  sweet  corn.  The  lower  part  of  the 
stalks  of  field  corn,  if  exceedingly  woody,  should  be  discarded. 
Sorghum  cane  that  is  to  be  used  as  swine  feed  should  be  cut 
just  as  it  is  ripe  and  either  stored  in  a  barn  or  shed  or  made 
up  into  large  shocks.  The  cane  will  make  a  valuable  suc- 
culent feed,  especially  if  it  has  not  been  frozen.  After  freez- 
ing, sorghum  cane  becomes  sour  and  lacks  sugar  and  juice. 

13.  Hay. — In  order  to  add  bulk  to  a  swine  ration  hay  is 
sometimes  used.  Well-cured  alfalfa  and  clover  hays  are 
superior  to  other  hays  for  swine  feeding.  A  good  way  to 
prepare  hay  for  use  is  to  chop  it  into  short  lengths  in  a  cutting 
box,  mix  it  with  the  quantity  of  grain  to  be  used  for  a  mess 
or  two,  and  then  run  the  mixture  through  a  steel-burr  grinder. 
The  chopped  hay  will  not  run  through  the  grinder  unless  it 
is  mixed  with  the  grain. 

14.  Animal  By-Products. — From  meat-packing  estab- 
lishments are  obtained  several  animal  by-products  that  may 
be  used  as  swine  feed.  They  include  tankage,  meat  meal, 
cracklings,  and  bone  meal.  The  tankage  and  meat  meal  are 
especially  rich  in  protein  and  are  therefore  valuable  for  mixing 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  7 

with  corn.  Tankage  and  meat  meal  often  contains  as  high 
as  60  per  cent,  of  protein,  but  as  the  quantity  varies  in  dif- 
ferent lots,  the  hog  raiser  should  always  purchase  and  feed 
these  materials  according  to  the  analysis  that  is  printed  on 
the  outside  of  the  bag  in  which  they  are  sold.  Cracklings, 
which  is  the  residue  left  after  lard  has  been  removed  from 
hog  fat,  is  compressed  into  cakes  at  the  factory.  Before 
being  fed  to  hogs,  it  should  be  broken  into  pieces  and  ground 
into  a  meal.  Cracklings  is  relished  by  pigs  of  any  age,  and 
is  especially  useful  in  a  ration,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  act  as 
a  laxative  for  the  animals  and  to  make  their  hair  glossy  and 
smooth.  Bone  meal  in  a  swine  ration  acts  as  bone-making 
material  for  the  hogs.  It  is  fed  in  small  quantities;  a  table- 
spoonful  for  each  pig  at  weaning  age  is  the  average  quantity 
used. 

15.  Dairy  Products. — Whenever  procurable,  milk  or  some 
of  its  products  should  be  included  in  a  swine  ration.  The 
slam  milk,  buttermilk,  or  whey  returned  from  creameries  or 
cheese  factories  is  a  valuable  feed  for  swine.  Such  products 
are  nearly  always  mixed  with  corn  meal,  pea  meal,  etc.  when 
fed  to  the  animals.  Whole  milk  is  sometimes  used  for  swine 
feeding,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  so  valuable  for  other  purposes 
that  the  by-products  are  more  often  used. 

16.  Mineral  Matter. — It  is  necessary  that  hogs  have 
mineral  matter  in  their  feed.  A  mixture  of  wood  ashes,  salt, 
iron  sulphate,  and  air-slaked  lime  is  used  with  success  by 
many  swine  raisers.  The  proportions  of  such  a  mixture 
should  be  about  as  follows:  1  part  each  of  iron  sulphate  and 
salt,  2  parts  of  lime,  and  4  parts  of  ashes.  Some  of  the 
mixture  should  be  placed  in  a  box  or  some  other  receptacle 
in  the  feeding  lot  where  it  will  be  accessible  to  the  hogs  at  all 
times. 

17.  Charcoal. — Hogs  should  be  fed  some  charcoal  at 
least  once  a  week,  as  this  substance  will  correct  any  acidity 
in  their  stomachs.  A  bushel  of  charcoal  for  every  8  or  10  hogs 
is  about  the  quantity  that  should  be  fed  at  one  time.     Char- 


8  SWINE  FEEDING  AXD  JUDGING  §  29 

coal  can  be  easily  prepared  on  the  farm.  In  the  first  place, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  dig  a  pit  in  which  to  burn  the  charcoal. 
A  pit  that  is  5  feet  in  depth  and  6  feet  in  diameter  at  the  sur- 
face and  3  or  4  feet  in  diameter  at  the  bottom,  so  that  the 
sides  will  slope  from  top  to  bottom,  will  be  large  enough. 
The  pit  should  be  walled  up  with  brick  or  stone  if  it  is  dug 
in  soil  that  is  liable  to  cave  in  at  the  sides.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary also  to  have  a  sheet-iron  cover  that  will  fit  over  the  top 
of  the  pit.  This  cover  should  be  made  so  that  it  can  be 
easilv  removed.  Dry  corn  cobs  are  used  in  making  charcoal, 
one  wagon  box  being  sufficient  to  make  one  pitful  of  charcoal. 
A  shovelful  of  cobs  is  set  on  fire  in  the  pit  and  then  dry  cobs 
are  added,  a  shovelful  at  a  time,  fast  enough  to  keep  the 
whole  mass  at  a  glow.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that 
the  cobs  do  not  burn  to  ashes.  When  the  pit  is  full  of  glow- 
ing cobs,  a  barrelful  of  salt  water,  that  is,  water  containing 
sufficient  salt  to  form  a  strong  brine,  is  poured  into  the  pit. 
This  water  wrill  check  any  blaze  there  may  be  in  the  pit, 
but  it  will  not  put  the  fire  out  entirely,  and  the  salt  it  con- 
tains will  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  charcoal  palatable. 
The  cover  is  then  placed  over  the  pit  and  earth  is  banked 
above  it  so  as  to  prevent  air  from  entering.  If  air  is  allowed 
to  enter,  the  cobs  wall  burn  to  ashes,  but  if  the  air  is  excluded, 
they  will  soon  char.  After  a  day  or  so  the  pit  is  opened, 
when  it  will  contain  a  quantity  of  charcoal  that  will  be  relished 
by  the  hogs. 

18.  Water. — Swine,  of  course,  require  water.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  pure  water,  and  only  pure 
water,  should  be  given  to  them.  If  there  is  no  water  supply 
in  a  hog  lot  or  pasture,  it  will  be  necessary  to  carry  the  wrater 
there,  for  animals  should  be  given  all  the  water  they  desire 
to  drink.  It  has  been  observed,  however,  that  when  con- 
siderable water  is  used  in  the  grain  rations  fed  to  hogs,  they 
will  want  very  little  to  drink. 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING 


FEEDING  OF  SWINE  FOR  PORK  PRODUCTION 


GENERAL.    CONSIDERATIONS 

19.  Indications  of  Good-Feeding  Type  of  Swine. — The 
person  who  feeds  swine  for  the  purpose  of  producing  pork 
should  know  the  indications  of  an  animal  that  will  gain 
weight  rapidly  and  thereby  pay  a  profit  to  his  owner.  If  the 
hog  raiser  is  feeding  the  lard  type  of  hog,  he  should  seek  as 
animals  for  fattening  those  which  possess  the  form  and 
characteristics  of  the  fat-hog  type.  The  indications  of  an 
animal  that  will  put  on  fat  rapidly  are  as  follows:  Face, 
rather  short  and  broad;  head,  wide;  ears,  well  apart;  jowl, 
full;  legs,  short;  body,  wide  and  deep,  with  a  good,  full  spring 
of  rib.  To  the  touch  the  hog  should  be  mellow,  rather  than 
hard  and  rigid.  A  hog  possessing  these  qualities  will  be 
found  an  easy  one  to  fatten.  The  indications  of  a  hog  of  the 
fat-hog  type  that  is  not  easy  to  fatten  are  as  follows:  Nose, 
long;  face,  narrow;  space  between  eyes,  narrow;  ears,  near 
together;  head,  narrow;  legs,  long;  body,  narrow,  with  a  poor 
spring  of  rib. 

If  a  hog  raiser  is  feeding  bacon  hogs,  he  should  look  for  a 
little  less  width  about  the  head  and  face  than  is  found  in  the 
lard  type,  but  at  the  same  time  he  should  avoid  selecting  a 
hog  that  possesses  coarseness.  He  should  look  for  good  length 
and  depth  of  body,  and  for  an  animal  that  seems  thrifty  and 
has  a  good  appetite. 

20.  Feeding  for  Lard  or  for  Bacon. — Whether  a  hog  raiser 
should  feed  hogs  for  lard  or  for  bacon  will  depend  largely  on 
the  location  of  his  farm.  Whenever  possible  he  should  make 
use  of  home-grown  feedstuffs,  because  the  feeding  of  hogs 
on  purchased  feed  entirely  is  not  often  conducive  to  profit. 
If  the  hog  raiser  lives  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States  and 
grows  large  quantities  of  corn  and  clover,  he  will  generally 
find  it  profitable  to  raise  lard-type  breeds.  Corn,  on  account 
of  its  fattening  tendency,  is  an  excellent  grain  for  lard  pro- 


10  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

duction.  Farmers  in  the  corn  belt  can  produce  a  fairly  good 
bacon  hog  by  feeding  a  narrow  ration  to  their  swine,  but 
corn  should  not  form  more  than  one-third  of  the  grain  part 
of  the  ration. 

Swine  raisers  outside  of  the  corn  belt  who  can  grow  barley, 
peas,  oats,  etc. — feeds  having  a  narrower  nutritive  value 
than  corn — can  often  raise  bacon  hogs  to  advantage,  because 
their  home-grown  grains  form  a  narrow  ration  that  is  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  bacon. 

21.  Age  to  Market  Hogs. — Formerly,  the  markets  de- 
manded heavy-weight  hogs;  that  is,  hogs  weighing  400  or 
500  pounds.  To  raise  hogs  of  this  weight,  it  is  necessary  to 
feed  them  to  an  age  of  H  to  2  years.  The  demands  of  the 
markets  during  late  years,  however,  have  changed  consider- 
ably. Young  hogs  weighing  from  150  to  200  pounds  now 
bring  the  best  market  prices.  Hogs  larger  than  these  will 
find  a  ready  sale,  but  they  generally  bring  a  little  less  per 
pound.  The  present  demand  of  the  market  is  advantageous 
to  hog  raisers,  because  more  money  can  be  made  in  selling 
young  hogs  than  in  selling  old  ones.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  a  hog  during  the  first  months  of  its  life  will  make  greater 
gains  in  weight  for  a  given  quantity  of  feed  consumed  than 
will  an  older  hog.  Experience  proves  that  two  lots  of  pigs 
can  be  fed  to  an  age  of  from  6  to  8  months  and  be  brought 
to  a  weight  of  about  200  pounds  each  for  less  money  than 
one  lot  can  be  fed  to  an  age  of  1  or  H  years  and  be  brought 
to  a  weight  of  about  400  pounds  each. 

22.  Time  of  Year  for  Fattening  Hogs. — The  time  of  the 
year  during  which  hogs  are  fattened  has  much  to  do  with  the 
profits.  Except  in  warm  climates,  winter  is  a  poor  time  for 
fattening  hogs.  Much  of  the  feed  that  would  tend  to  make 
fat  is  needed  to  keep  the  animals  warm,  and  for  this  reason 
it  requires  more  grain  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  during  cold 
weather  than  during  warm  weather.  When  raising  hogs 
commercially,  therefore,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  breed  them  so 
that  the  litters  will  be  farrowed  in  the  spring.     The  pigs  can 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  11 

then  be  fattened  during  the  summer  and  sold  before  the 
occurrence  of  winter  weather 

23.  Places  for  the  Fattening  of  Hogs. — When  pigs  are  to 
be  fattened  during  the  warm  season  of  the  year,  the  best 
place  for  them  is  a  good  pasture.  Shelter,  of  course,  should 
be  provided.  Houses  or  sheds,  as  described  in  a  previous 
Section,  should  be  erected  in  the  pasture  or  lot.  In  addition, 
there  should  be  some  kind  of  shade  to  protect  the  pigs  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun;  if  there  are  no  trees  to  provide  natural 
shade,  an  artificial  shelter  should  be  erected.  Such  a  shelter 
can  be  made  by  covering  a  framework  of  posts  with  tree 
branches.  These  branches  should  not  be  placed  so  close 
together  that  rain  cannot  penetrate  to  the  ground  below, 
because  an  occasional  wetting  is  necessary  to  lay  the  dust  in 
the  shelter.  In  fact,  if  rains  are  not  frequent  enough  to  keep 
the  dust  settled,  a  few  pails  of  water  should  occasionally  be 
thrown  on  the  floor  of  the  shelter  place.  Dust  will  cause  hogs 
to  cough. 

Hogs  cannot  be  fattened  so  economically  in  small  yards  as 
in  pastures.  Pen  feeding,  therefore,  should  not  be  adopted 
except  by  persons  who  have  small  farms  and  cannot  spare 
space  for  a  pasture  lot  or  by  villagers  who  wish  to  keep  a  few 
swine  in  their  back  3^ards.  When  feeding  hogs  in  pens,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  give  them  some  green  stuff  occasionally  so 
as  to  make  up  for  what  they  would  get  were  they  on 
pasture.  , 

If  it  happens  that  hogs  must  be  fed  for  fattening  during 
part  or  all  of  the  winter,  they  should  be  placed  in  a  fairly 
good-sized  feeding  lot  that  is  provided  with  a  house  or  shed 
in  which  they  can  stay  when  not  being  fed.  Plenty  of  straw 
should  be  placed  in  such  an  enclosure,  so  that  the  animals 
can  burrow  into  straw  and  thus  keep  warm. 

24.  Gain  in  Weight  Made  in  Fattening  Swine. — The  gain 
that  hogs  should  make  while  being  fattened  for  market 
depends  on  conditions.  If  they  are  of  the  kind  that  fatten 
readily  and  are  properly  housed  and  kept  free  from  vermin 


12  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

and  disease,  they  will  naturally  make  greater  gains  than  if 
the  reverse  is  true.  Under  average  conditions,  a  swine  raiser 
may  expect  a  daily  gain  of  at  least  1  pound  for  each  hog  from 
the  date  of  its  birth  to  the  age  of  1  year.  After  a  hog  is  1  year 
old,  it  will  gain  less  per  day  than  before.  Under  exceptional 
conditions,  a  gain  as  high  as  2\  pounds  a  day  may  be  made, 
but  as  a  rule  a  feeder  should  not  expect  a  greater  gain  than 
1  pound  a  day. 

RATIONS    FOR    FAT    HOGS 

25.  Ration  for  Unweaned  Pigs. — During  the  time  pigs  are 
running  with  their  mothers  they  should  be  fed  a  rather  narrow 
grain  ration.  The  reason  for  feeding  a  narrow  ration  at  this 
period  of  their  lives  is  that  they  need  feed  rich  in  protein. 
Protein  furnishes  the  material  to  grow  bone,  muscle,  hair,  etc., 
the  parts  that  are  being  developed  during  the  first  month  or 
two  of  the  life  of  the  pig.  The  following  materials  mixed 
in  the  proportion  given  have  been  found  by  experience  to  be 
well  suited  for  suckling  pigs: 

Parts 

Corn  meal 2 

Wheat  middlings 7 

Tankage 1 

Skim  milk 30 

These  materials  are  mixed  together  to  form  a  medium 
thick  slop,  and  are  fed  soon  after  being  mixed.  If  allowed 
to  stand  very  long,  the  mixture  will  become  sour,  and  thus 
unfit  for  use.  Of  this  mixture  the  pigs  are  fed  just  what  they 
will  clean  up  with  a  relish.  No  feed  should  be  left  in  the 
troughs  to  become  sour.  If  skim  milk  cannot  be  procured, 
pure,  fresh  water  may  be  substituted. 

26.  Ration  for  Pigs  After  Weaning. — After  weaning  the 
pigs,  the  rations  given  in  the  preceding  article  may  be  con- 
tinued until  they  reach  an  age  of  about  4  months.  From  the 
fourth  to  the  sixth  month,  the  following  proportions  may  be 
used: 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  13 

Parts 

Corn  meal 5 

Wheat  middlings 4 

Tankage 1 

Skim  milk 30 

From  6  months  up  to  the  time  the  pigs  are  marketed,  the 
following  proportions  are  used  : 

Parts 

Corn  meal 4 

Tankage 1 

This  mixture  is  either  fed  dry  or  made  into  a  thick  mush 
by  the  addition  of  skim  milk,  whey,  or  water.  If  fed  dry, 
an  abundance  of  pure,  fresh  water  should  be  placed  where 
the  pigs  can  get  it  at  will. 

27.  Other  mixtures  that  will  give  about  the  same  propor- 
tion of  nutrients  may  be  substituted  for  the  preceding  rations. 
When  fattening  pigs  for  market,  the  hog  raiser  should  bear 
in  mind  that  it  is  always  advisable  to  have  the  ration  made  up 
largely  of  home-grown  feed. 

Whatever  ration  is  used,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  change  the 
ingredents  occasionally  by  substituting  other  feeds  that  will 
give  about  the  same  quantity  of  nutrients.  Hogs  welcome 
a  variety  in  feed  as  well  as  do  other  animals.  If  the  pre- 
ceding mixture  is  being  used,  the  hog  raiser  can  substitute 
ground  barley  or.  ground  rye  for  the  corn  meal  for  a  few  days, 
or  he  can  leave  out  the  middlings  and  add  ground  oats.  Care, 
however,  should  be  taken  in  feeding  oats.  Unless  the  hulls 
are  separated  from  the  grain  part,  oats  should  not  be  fed  to 
pigs  until  they  have  reached  the  age  of  5  or  6' months.  The 
hulls  of  oats  tend  to  irritate  the  intestines  of  young  pigs. 

28.  Succulent  Feed  for  Fattening  Hogs. — In  addition  to 
rations  given  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  young  pigs  need 
some  kind  of  succulent  feed.  In  summer,  which  is  the  ideal 
time  to  fatten  pigs,  this  succulent  feed  can  best  be  derived 
from  pasture.  Animals  running  on  pasture  require  less 
attention   from   their   caretakers   than   do   animals   that   are 


14  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

being  fed  in  a  lot,  for  the  reason  that  they  gather  a  large  part 
of  their  feed  themselves.  The  exercise  that  the  pigs  get  in 
searching  for  feed  in  a  pasture  tends  to  give  them  a  good 
appetite  and  to  keep  them  healthy. 

29.  In  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States,  a  satisfactory 
system  of  pasture  feeding  is  followed  for  pigs  that  are  farrowed 
sometime  in  April  and  are  ready  to  be  turned  out  to  pasture 
in  May.  In  the  previous  fall,  a  field  is  sown  to  either  rye  or 
winter  vetch,  so  that  there  will  be  a  good  crop  ready  for  the 
pigs  when  they  are  turned  out  in  the  spring.  Either  of  these 
crops  makes  a  good  pasture  for  pigs  at  this  earl)-  date,  and, 
1  acre  of  pasture  will  supply  100  pigs  and  their  mothers  with 
green  feed  for  a  month.  While  the  pigs  are  on  this  pasture, 
a  ration  of  corn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  tankage,  and  skim 
milk,  as  described  in  Art.  25,  is  fed  to  them. 

About  the  first  of  June,  and  in  some  cases  sooner,  the  pigs 
are  separated  from  their  mothers  and  placed  in  a  clover  or 
an  alfalfa  pasture.  If  in  good  growing  condition,  an  acre 
of  this  kind  of  pasture  will  supply  green  feed  for  the  pigs  for 
the  next  5  or  6  weeks.  A  ration  of  corn  meal,  wheat  mid- 
dlings, or  some  similar  feed  is  also  fed  to  the  pigs  while  on 
this  pasture. 

On  or  about  the  fifteenth  of  July,  when  clover  and  alfalfa 
pastures  begin  to  dry  up,  the  pigs  are  turned  into  a  pasture 
of  field  peas  and  oats.  The  planting  of  the  peas  and  oats  is  so 
timed  that  the  plants  will  be  far  enough  grown  by  about  the 
middle  of  July  to  supply  a  part  of  the  grain  ration  for  the  pigs. 
Thus,  this  pasture  makes  it  possible  to  decrease  the  quantity 
of  corn  meal,  etc.  that  must  be  fed  to  the  animals.  The 
acreage  of  peas  and  oats,  however,  is  of  course  a  little  larger 
than  that  of  rye  or  vetch,  because  the  pigs  by  this  time  are 
larger  and  because  the  pasture  supplies  a  part  of  their  grain 
feed. 

Green  sweet  corn  is  fed  to  the  pigs  while  they  are  on  the 
pasture  of  peas  and  oats,  and  in  order  to  supply  it,  a  piece  of 
land  is  planted  to  sweet  corn  at  the  regular  corn-planting  time. 
The  green  corn  is  not  given  to  the  animals  until  it  reaches 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  15 

the  roasting-ear  stage,  when  the  stalks  with  ears  attached  are 
cut  up  and  thrown  into  the  pasture.  Green  sweet  corn  is  fed 
sparingly  at  first,  the  quantity  being  increased  gradually. 
Too  much  corn  at  first  is  liable  to  make  the  pigs  sick.  The 
corn-meal  ration  is  made  very  small  while  green  corn  is  being 
fed  to  the  pigs,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  done  away  with  entirely. 
Shortly  after  the  sweet-corn  crop,  the  field  corn  is  ready  for 
swine  feeding.  It,  too,  is  fed  while  in  the  roasting-ear  stage. 
However,  if  the  bottom  portion  of  the  stalks  of  field  corn 
have  become  woody  by  the  time  the  ears  reach  the  roasting- 
ear  stage,  only  the  top  portion  is -fed  to  the  hogs.  The 
pigs  are  kept  on  pasture,  and  corn,  which  in  the  meantime 
becomes  more  mature,  is  fed  to  them  until  fall  or  early 
winter,  when  they  are  ready  for  market. 


RATIONS    FOR    BACON    HOGS 

30.  Rations  for  producing  bacon  hogs  should  be  some- 
what narrower  than  those  required  for  fat  hogs.  In  the 
corn  belt,  bacon  hogs  for  the  first  month  or  two  after  birth 
should  be  fed  about  the  same  ration  as  that  given  in  Art.  25. 
The  finishing  ration,  however,  should  be  different  from  that 
for  fat  hogs.  A  mixture  of  corn,  other  grains,  mill  feed, 
tankage,  skim  milk,  and  pasture  crops  make  a  satisfactory 
ration  for  bacon  pigs.  Corn  should  not,  however,  form  more 
than  one-third  of  the  concentrated  part  of  the  ration.  Out- 
side of  the  corn  belt  where  barley,  peas  and  oats,  are  grown, 
these  grains  mixed  with  shorts,  middlings,  tankage,  and  skim 
milk  give  good  results.  For  summer,  alfalfa,  clover,  or  some 
other  pasture  for  the  production  of  green  forage  is  desirable. 
If  the  hogs  are  kept  and  fed  during  winter,  mangel  wurzels, 
sugar  beets,  or  turnips  may  form  the  succulent  part  of  the  ration. 
Winter  feeding,  however,  is  so  expensive  that  it  is  not  often 
practiced. 


16  SWIXE  FEEDIXG  AXD  JUDGIXG  §  29 


RASGE    FEEDING    OF    HOGS 

31.  In  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  some 
parts  of  Canada,  hogs  are  sometimes  kept  in  large  droves  and 
fed  for  market.  Such  a  method  of  feeding  is  known  as  range 
feeding.  In  the  spring  a  drove  of  sows  with  their  litters 
is  placed  in  the  best  pasture  obtainable,  which  in  these 
regions  is  generally  one  of  alfalfa  or  field  peas,  or  in  some  cases 
both.  The  sows  and  the  young  pigs  are  left  on  this  pasture 
until  they  become  marketable,  no  feed  other  than  the  alfalfa 
or  peas  being  given  to  them.  In  the  fall,  stock  for  breeding 
purposes  is  removed  from  the  drove  and  the  rest  of  the 
animals  are  taken  to  market.  Hogs  raised  and  fed  in  this 
manner  make  a  satisfactory  product  at  a  small  cost.  The 
labor  required  in  caring  for  a  large  number  of  hogs  on  a  range 
is  much  less  than  that  required  where  more  intensive  methods 
are  followed.  One  or  two  men  can  care  for  about  1,000 
range-fed  hogs  during  a  season.  Shade  of  some  kind  should  be 
present  in  the  pasture;  if  there  are  no  trees,  cheap  sheds 
should  be  built.  Pure  water  should,  of  course,  be  available 
at  all  times. 

FEEDIXG  OF  BREEDING  SWIXE 

32.  Feeding  of  Herd  Boars. — The  boar  or  boars  of  a  breed- 
ing herd  of  swine  should  be  placed  in  pastures  or  lots  by 
themselves.  The  feed  for  aged  animals  should  consist  of  a 
slop  composed  of  a  mixture  of  different  ground  grains  and  mill 
feeds,  enough  only  being  fed  to  the  animals  to  keep  them  in 
fair  flesh.  A  ration  that  has  been  found  satisfactory  consists 
of  the  following: 

Parts 

Ground  oats 2 

Corn  meal 1 

Wheat  middlings 1 

For  each  mess,  a  small  quantity  of  salt  and  a  handful  of 
linseed  meal  may  be  added  to  this  ration,  and  these  should 
be  mixed   together  with  sweet  skim  milk  to  form  a  slop. 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  17 

Only  as  much  of  this  mixture  as  the  boar  will  eat  with  a 
relish  should  be  given  at  one  time. 

Young  boars  during  their  first  half  year  should  be  given 
enough  of  a  ration  consisting  of  mixed  mill  feed  and  grain  to 
keep  them  in  rapid  growth.  This  means  that  the  quantity 
given  at  a  meal  should  be  all  that  they  will  eat  with  a  relish. 

33.  Feeding  of  Brood  Sows. — In  order  to  produce  a  strong 
litter  of  pigs,  a  brood  sow  should  be  properly  fed  during  the 
entire  period  of  gestation.  The  feed  used  should  be  similar 
to  that  recommended  for  young  pigs.  The  following  com- 
bination for  the  concentrated  part  of  the  ration  has  been 
found  to  be  satisfactory: 

Parts 

Corn  meal 5 

Middlings  or  ground  oats 5 

Tankage 1 

This  ration  may  be  fed  either  dry  or  mixed  with  water. 
If  the  sows  are  being  fed  during  the  winter,  some  bulky  feed 
should  be  added  to  the  above  list.  Well-cured  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  will  prove  to  be  a  good  feed.  If  such  hay  cannot 
be  procured,  sugar  beets  or  mangel  wurzels  may  be  used. 
In  the  absence  of  all  these,  sorghum  cane  that  has  been  cut 
when  ripe  and  placed  where  it  is  protected  from  frost  will 
answer. 

34.  A  brood  sow  carrying  a  litter  during  the  summer 
should  be  placed  on  good  alfalfa  or  clover  pasture.  She  will 
then  require  no  other  bulky  feeds  than  those  which  she  can 
gather.  The  mixed  ration  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article 
may  be  fed  to  the  sow  if  it  is  easily  procurable,  but,  if  the 
pasture  is  an  exceedingly  good  one,  ear  corn  alone  may  be 
made  to  answer  as  the  grain  part  of  the  ration. 

35.  After  a  sow  has  farrowed,  she  should  not  be  fed  any- 
thing for  the  first  24  hours.  A  drink  of  pure  water  should, 
however,  be  given  several  times  during  the  day.  If  feed  is  fed 
to  the  sow  the  first  day  after  farrowing,  it  is  likely  to  cause 
such  a  flow  of  milk  that  a  fever  will  be  started  in  the  udder. 

243—8 


18  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

Such  a  condition  results  in  tenderness  of  the  udder,  and  when 
such  is  the  case,  the  sow  will  not  allow  the  pigs  to  get  milk. 
A  condition  like  this  will  often  result  in  the  loss  of  the  pigs 
and  in  the  ruination  of  the  sow.  On  the  second  day  the  sow 
should  be  fed  a  small  quantity  of  slop  consisting  of  the 
mixture  just  mentioned  and  water.  The  quantity  of  slop 
fed  to  the  sow  should  then  be  increased  a  little  each  day  up 
to  about  a  week  after  the  pigs  are  born.  At  the  end  of  the 
week,  if  the  pigs  and  the  sow  are  healthy,  she  may  be  given 
a  full  feed  of  the  slop.  A  full  feed  in  this  case  will  mean 
about  the  quantity  she  will  eat  with  a  relish.  As  the  pigs 
increase  in  size,  the  slop  given  the  sow  should  be  mixed  with 
skim  milk  instead  of  water,  as  the  skim  milk  will  have  a 
tendency  to  increase  the  milk  flow  of  the  sow. 


SWINE  JUDGING 

36.  Classification  of  Exhibition  Swine. — At  county  and 
state  fairs  and  at  livestock  exhibitions,  animals  are  generally 
brought  together  in  competition.  In  the  swine  family,  there 
will  naturally  be  three  general  classes,  or  divisions,  into  which 
animals  can  be  placed.  These  classes  are  lard,  or  fat,  swine; 
bacon  swine;  and  breeding  stock.  Pure-bred  animals  can,  of 
course,  be  placed  in  two  of  the  classes.  For  example,  pure- 
bred Berkshires  can  be  placed  in  the  fat-hog  class  as  well  as 
in  the  breeding-stock  class;  and  Tamworths  can  be  placed  in 
the  bacon-hog  class  and  in  the  breeding-stock  class.  Animals 
that  are  not  pure  bred  can  be  placed  only  in  the  fat-hog  or  in 
the  bacon-hog  class. 

37.  Qualifications  of  a  Swine  Judge. — When  animals  are 
brought  together  in  competition,  it  is  necessary  that  some 
person  decide  which  ones  possess  merits  over  others.  This 
work  at  the  fairs  and  expositions  is  generally  done  by  com- 
petent judges.  No  person  is  capable  of  judging  swine  unless 
he  has  in  mind  the  ideal  standard  of  the  type  on  which  he  is 
asked  to  pass  judgment.  In  addition,  he  must  be  able  to 
see  the  points  of  excellence  as  well  as  the  points  of  weakness 


§  29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  19 

in  all  animals,  and  to  weigh  these  as  to  importance.  Besides 
these  qualifications,  he  should  be  a  person  that  is  not  easily 
confused.  After  decisions  have  been  made  by  a  judge,  he 
should  be  able  and  willing  to  show  why  he  considers  a  cer- 
tain animal  or  certain  animals  better  than  others.  It  often 
happens  that  he  can  do  this  to  advantage  by  placing  the 
animals  about  which  exhibitors  may  be  disputing  side  by 
side  in  the  judging  ring  and  then  pointing  out  the  weaknesses 
of  the  one  animal  and  the  excellent  points  of  the  other.  For 
example,  suppose  two  hogs  are  similarly  well  formed  in  every 
respect,  except  that  one  has  a  good,  full,  strong  back  while 
the  other  has  a  back  that  sags  about  2  inches  below  the  level. 
Were  these  two  animals  placed  side  by  side,  the  exhibitors 
would  quickly  see  why  one  is  judged  to  be  better  than  the 
other. 

38.  Use  of  Score  Card  in  Swine  Judging. — When  learning 
to  judge  animals,  persons  often  make  use  of  a  score  card, 
which  is  a  card  containing  a  list  of  qualifications  that  should 
be  looked  for  in  an  animal  of  the  type  or  breed  that  is  to  be 
judged.  At  the  right  of  the  list  is  a  series  of  numbers  that 
when  added  will  amount  to  100.  These  numbers  indicate  the 
relative  weights  of  the  qualifications. 

In  scoring  animals,  a  cut,  or  deduction,  is  subtracted  from 
the  number  opposite  each  qualification,  and  the  remainder  is 
placed  as  the  relative  worth  of  the  animal  for  that  qualifica- 
tion. These  numbers  are  added  after  the  work  of  scoring 
has  been  finished,  and  the  sum  is  said  to  be  the  score  of  the 
animal.  An  ideal  animal,  that  is,  one  that  is  perfect  in  all 
qualifications,  would  score  100. 

39.  Three  score  cards  are  given  here.  The  first  is  for  a 
barrow  of  the  fat-hog  type,  and  the  second  is  for  a  barrow 
of  the  bacon-hog  type.  In  comparing  the  weights  given  for 
certain  qualifications  on  these  two  score  cards,  it  will  be  seen 
that  in  the  fat-hog  type  great  weight  is  given  to  the  back, 
loin,  and  hams,  while  in  the  bacon-hog  type  great  weight  is 
given  to  the  sides  and  belly.  The  reason  for  giving  these 
relative  weights  is  obvious  when  it  is  remembered  that  the 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    FAT    BARROW 


General  Appearance 

1.  Weight:  score  according  to  age  (pigs  of  a 

given  age  should  show  a  certain  weight) .  . 

2.  Form:  deep,  broad,  low,  long,  symmetrical, 

compact,  standing  squarely  on  legs 

3.  Quality:  hair,   silky;   skin,  fine;  bone,  fine; 

mellow  covering  of  flesh,  free  from  lumps 


Perfect  Judge's 
;re      Score 


10 


K) 


4. 

Condition:  deep,  even  covering  of  flesh  and 

in 

5 

Head  and  Neck 

6 

s 

q 

10 

1 1 

Forequarters 
Shoulder;  broad,  deep,  full,  compact  on  top 
Legs:   straight,   short,   strong;  bone,   clean; 

Body 

fi 

12. 

? 

13 

4 

14. 

Sides:  deep,  lengthy,  full;  ribs,  close  and  well 

6 

1.5. 

Back:  broad,   straight,   thickly  and  evenly 

in 

16 

8 

17 

4 

18 

Hindquarters 

Rump:  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  straight.  . 
Ham :  heavily  fleshed,  plump,  full,  deep,  wide 

? 

19 

2 

°0 

in 

21 

9 

22. 

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  bone,  clean; 

? 

100 

20 


SCORE     CARD     FOR     BACON-TYPE     BARROW 

General  Appearance  Perfect   Judge's 

Score      Score 

1.  Weight:    170  to  200  pounds,   the  result  of 

thick  cover  of  firm  flesh 6  

2.  Form :  long,  level,  smooth,  deep 10  

3.  Quality:   hair,   fine;   skin,   thin;   bone,   fine; 

firm   covering   of   flesh   without   any   soft 
bunches  of  fat  or  wrinkles 10 

4.  Condition:  deep,  uniform  covering  of  flesh, 

especially  in  region  of  high-priced  cuts  .  .        10  


5.     Snout:  fine. 


Head  and  Neck 


1 


G.  Eyes :  full,  mild,  bright 1 

7.  Face :  slim j 

8.  Ears:  trim,  medium  size 1 

9.  Jowl :  light,  trim 1 

10.  Neck:  medium  length,  light 1 

FOREQUARTERS 

11.  Shoulders:    free    from    roughness,    smooth, 

compact    and    same    width    as    back    and 

hindquarters g 

1'-'.      Breast:  moderately  wide,  full 2 

13.  Legs:   straight,   short,   strong;   bone,   clean; 

pasterns,  upright;  feet,  medium  size 2 

Body 

14.  Chest:  deep,  full  girth 4 

15.  Back :  medium  and  uniform  in  width,  smooth  8 

16.  Sides:  long,  smooth,  level  from  beginning  of 

shoulders  to  end  of  hindquarters.  The 
side  at  all  points  should  touch  a  straight 
edge  running  from  fore  to  hindquarter.  .  .        10 

17.  Ribs:  deep,  uniformly  sprung 2 

18.  Belly:  trim,  firm,  thick  without  any  flabbi- 

ness  or  shrinkage  at  flank 10 

Hindquarters 

19.  Hips:  smooth,  wide;  proportionate  to  rest  of 

body 2 

20.  Rump:  long,  even,  straight,  rounded  toward 

tail 2 

21.  Gammon:   firm,   rounded,   tapering,   fleshed 

deep  and  low  toward  hocks 8 

22.  Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  feet,  medium 

size;  bone,  clean;  pasterns,  upright 2 


21 


Total 100 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    BERKSHIRE    SWINE 

Standard  of  Excellence  Adopted  By  the  American  Berkshire 

Association 

Perfect  Judge's 
Score      Score 
Color — Black,  white  feet,  face,  and  tip  of  tail,  but 

skin  and   hair  occasionally   showing  tinge  of 

bronze  or  copper  color.     An  occasional  splash 

of  white  not  objectionable;  lack  of  either  of 

white  points  admissible 3  

Face  and  Snout — Face  well  dished  and  broad 

between  eyes.     Snout  short  and  broad 7 

Eyes — Prominent,  clean,  clear,  large,  dark  hazel 

or  grey 2  

Ears — Medium  size,  setting  well  apart,  carried 

fairly  erect,  inclining  forward,  especially  with 

age 3  

Jowl — Full,  firm,  not  flabby  or  hanging  too  low, 

running  back  well  on  neck 3  

Neck — Full,  short  and  slightly  arched;  broad  on 

top;  well  connected  with  shoulder 3  

Hair — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and 

covering  the  body  well.     Free  from  bristles.  .  .  3  

Skin — Smooth  and  mellow 3  . 

Chest — Deep,  full  and  wide,  with  good  heart  girth         6  

Shoulder — Smooth  and  even  on  top  and  in  line 

with  side 6  

Side — Deep,  smooth,  well  let  down;  straight  side 

and  bottom  lines 6  

Back — Broad,  full,  strong,  level  or  slightly  arched ; 

ribs  well  sprung 10 

Flank — Well  back  and  low  down  on  leg,  making 

nearly  a  straight  line  with  lower  part  of  side  ...  5  

Loin — Full,  wide  and  well  covered  with  flesh.  ...  6  

Ham — Deep,  wide,  thick  and  firm,  extending  well 

upon  back  and  holding  thickness  well  down  to 

hock 10  

Tail — Well  upon  line  with  back;  neither  too  fine, 

short  nor  tapering 2  

Legs  and  Feet — Straight  and  strong,  set  wide 

apart,  short  in  pastern,  with  hoofs  nearly  erect, 

capable  of  carrying  great  weight 10  

Size — Size   all  that  is  possible  without  loss  of 

quality     or     symmetry,     with     good     length. 

Weight  in  good  condition,  boars  at  12  months, 

350  to  450  pounds;  at  24  months,  500  to  700 

pounds;  sows  at  12  months,  350  to  400  pounds; 

at  24  months,  500  to  700  pounds 6  

Appearance  and  Character — Vigorous,  attrac- 
tive, of  good  disposition,  firm  and  easy  move- 
ment    6  

Total 100 

22 


§29  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  23 

fat-hog  type  is  raised  for  the  production  of  lard  and  hams, 
and  the  bacon-hog  type  for  the  production  of  bacon.  The 
third  score  card  is  for  use  in  scoring  breeding  hogs  of  the  Berk- 
shire breed.  It  will  be  seen  that  attention  is  paid  to  breed 
characteristics,  such  as  dish  of  face,  shape  of  ear,  color,  etc. 
There  are  score  cards  for  every  breed  of  hog,  but  they  differ 
from  the  one  here  given  only  in  breed  characteristics. 

40.  General  Procedure  in  Swine  Judging. — After  a  judge 
has  had  experience  in  judging  swine,  he  does  not  resort  to  the 
score  card,  but  places  the  animals  in  their  respective  positions 
of  first,  second,  third,  etc.  merely  by  weighing  their  several 
qualifications  in  his  mind.  In  judging  any  class  of  hogs,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  about  the  work  in  a  systematic  manner.  The 
exact  procedure  will  vary  with  different  judges;  nevertheless, 
each  man  should  have  a  definite  plan  in  mind  and  follow  it. 

A  plan  that  works  well  is  first  to  approach  the  animal 
from  the  front  and  observe  from  this  position  the  width  of 
the  back,  the  width  and  smoothness  of  the  shoulders  on  top, 
the  manner  in  which  the  neck  joins  the  shoulders,  the  width 
and  length  of  the  head,  the  shape  and  set  of  the  ears,  the 
presence  or  absence  of  wrinkles  in  the  face,  and,  if  the  class 
is  one  of  the  breeding  swine,  the  color  of  the  eyes. 

The  judge  should  next  step  to  one  side  of  the  hog  and 
observe  the  dish  of  the  face,  the  trimness  or  fulness  of  the 
jowl,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  neck  is  connected  with 
the  shoulder.  The  width  and  depth  of  the  shoulder,  the 
depth  of  the  chest  and  the  body,  and  the  shape  of  both  top 
and  bottom  lines  should  also  be  observed,  and  from  this  posi- 
tion the  judge  can  see  the  length  of  the  rump,  the  depth  and 
width  of  the  ham,  the  straightness  of  the  legs,  the  length  of 
the  pasterns,  and  the  way  in  which  the  hog  stands  on  its 
toes.  The  breaking  over  of  the  pasterns,  which  allows  the 
hog  to  be  let  down  too  far  on  his  toes,  is  a  common  fault 
that  should  be  carefully  observed  by  judges. 

The  judge  next  takes  his  position  back  of  the  animal. 
Here,  he  observes  the  width  of  the  hindquarters,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  hog  is  filled  out  in  the  hind  legs. 


24  SWINE  FEEDING  AND  JUDGING  §  29 

The  opposite  side  is  then  viewed  the  same  as  was  the  other, 
after  which  the  judge  has  made  a  complete  observation  of  the 
animal  from  all  sides. 

This  method,  or  one  similar,  the  judge  follows  with  each 
hog  to  be  judged.  Experience  will  soon  enable  him  to 
observe  a  hog  very  quickly,  and  after  having  observed  all, 
he  will  reject  the  inferior  ones  and  give  his  attention  to  the 
better  ones.  He  will  then  look  over  the  better  hogs  care- 
fully and  decide  which  one  is  the  best.  The  second,  third, 
fourth,  etc.  are  then  selected,  and  the  result  announced. 


SWINE  BREEDING 


GENERAL   REMARKS 

1.  Origin  and  Development  of  Swine. — Naturalists  are 
practically  agreed  that  domestic  swine  are  descendants  of 
two  species  of  wild  animals:  the  wild  hog  of  Europe,  Africa, 
and  Western  Asia,  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  the  Chinese  hog  of 
Japan  and  Eastern  Asia,  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Of  the  early  domestication  of  swine  little  is  known,  save 
that  in  ancient  times  they  were  herded  in  large  droves  in 
the  forests.  Early  accounts  show  that  little  effort  was  made 
toward  the  improvement  of  swine  by  breeding  until  after 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  In  1778  a  breed  known 
as  the  Old  Irish,  a  specimen  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  3,  was 
in  existence  in  Ireland.  The  hogs  of  this  breed  had  long 
heads,  drooping  ears,  large  bones,  and  coarse  bristles.  A 
little  later  a  breed  known  as  the  Old  English,  a  typical  animal 
of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  4,  was  developed  in  England.  As 
may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  specimens  illustrated  in 
Figs.  3  and  4,  the  English  hog  was  an  improvement  over  the 
Irish  hog,  as  it  was  shorter  in  the  legs  and  had  more  of  the 
body  conformation  characteristic  of  the  modern  breeds  of 
swine.  It  was,  however,  uncouth  and  coarse,  and  in  many 
ways  lacked  the  quality  and  fineness  possessed  by  swine  of 
the  present  day. 

From  the  time  of  the  Old  English  hog  down  to  the  present, 
there  has  been  much  progress  in  swine  breeding.  To  com- 
prehend this  fact,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  compare  the 
illustration  of  the  Old  English  hog  shown  in  Fig.  4  with  that 
of  the  two  smooth,  well-formed  Yorkshires  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

COPYRIOHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.       ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'    HALL,   LONDON 

§30 


SWINE  BREEDING 


30 


The  hog  of  today  is  a  smooth,  evenly  fleshed  animal,  and  is 
much  better  fitted  for  the  production  of  hams,  shoulders,  bacon, 


Fig.  1 


and  lard  of  excellent  quality  than  were  the  old  types  of  hogs. 

2.     Production  of  Pure-Bred  Swine. — It  should  be  the  aim 
of  every  breeder  of  swine  to  improve  his  stock.    A  breeder,  to 


Fig.  2 


be  able  to  do  this,  should  study  and  observe  the  animals  he 
desires  to  improve  and  thus  learn  wherein  improvements  can 


§30 


SWINE  BREEDING 


be  made.  He  should  have  in  mind  a  definite  idea  of  the  type 
of  animal  he  wishes  to  produce,  for  the  breeder  with  a  definite 
type  in  mind  is  the  only  one  that  succeeds. 


Fig.  3 

A  person  starting  in  the  business  of  breeding  pure-bred 
animals  should  purchase  his  foundation  stock  from  a  reliable 
breeder  who  sells  only  animals  that  possess  merit.  Before  start- 
ing in  the  business,  however,  he  should  give  it  much  study  and 
should  visit  the  farms  of  successful  breeders  and  learn  the 
characteristics  of  the  breed  of  animals  he  expects  to  raise. 


A  man  in  the  breeding  business  must  be  truthful  in  the 
registering  of  his  stock  with  the  record  associations.     It  is 


SWIXE  BREEDIXG 


§  30 


possible  to  conceal  fraud  in  pedigree  for  a  time,  but  the 
imposition  is  sure  to  be  discovered  and  the  breeder  will  find 
that  his  breeding  stock  is  not  in  demand  on  the  market. 

Breeders  will  always  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  exhibit 
their  choicest  animals  at  fairs  and  livestock  shows.  When 
just  starting  in  business,  small  fairs  and  shows  should  be  the 
ones  attended,  and  as  the  breeder  becomes  better  established 
he  should  exhibit  his  animals  at  the  large  shows.  The 
exhibiting  of  animals  in  this  way  is  the  best  kind  of  adver- 
tising a  breeder  can  get. 


Fig.  5 

3.  When  it  is  desired  to  start  in  the  business  of  breeding 
pure-bred  swine  and  capital  is  lacking,  a  good  method  of 
procedure  is  to  grade  up  a  herd.  Grading  up  is  accomplished 
by  breeding  either  native  or  grade  animals  with  pure-breds, 
and  then  breeding  the  offspring  with  other  pure-breds;  this 
is  continued  until  a  cross  is  reached  that  is  practically  a 
pure-bred  animal.  The  most  practical  way  to  accomplish 
grading  up  on  farms  is  for  a  farmer  to  begin  with  either 
native  or  grade  sows  and  breed  them  to  a  pure-bred  boar, 
rather  than  to  begin  with  pure-bred  sows  and  a  grade  boar. 
The  offspring  will  be  at  least  half-breeds,  or,  as   they   are 


§  30  SWINE  BREEDING  5 

sometimes  termed,  half-bloods.  A  pure-bred  boar  is  selected 
instead  of  pure-bred  sows  for  the  reason  that  it  is  more 
economical  to  purchase  one  pure-bred  male  than  it  is  to 
purchase  a  number  of  pure-bred  breeding  sows. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  breeding  season  the  farmer  should 
dispose  of  the  native  or  grade  sows,  the  young  male  pigs  of 
the  year's  production,  and  the  pure-bred  boar,  saving  only 
the  young  half-breed  sows  for  breeding  purposes  for  the  next 
season.  The  pure-bred  sire  is  disposed  of  for  the  reason  that 
were  he  kept  he  would  be  bred  to  his  own  offspring;  and  this 
inbreeding,  except  for  the  accomplishment  of  certain  definite 
objects,  is  not  considered  advisable.  The  next  season  a  pure- 
bred boar  should  be  purchased  and  bred  to  the  young  half- 
breed  sows.  The  resulting  offspring  will  be  three-quarters 
pure  blood.  Of  these,  the  sows  should  be  saved  and  bred 
the  next  year  to  another  pure-bred  boar.  The  cross  that  year 
will  be  seven-eighths  pure  bred.  If  the  same  process  were 
carried  on  the  next  year  the  pigs  would  be  fifteen-sixteenths 
pure  blood,  and  the  next  year  the  offspring  would  be  thirty- 
one  thirty-seconds  pure.  This  process  can  be  carried  on 
indefinitely,  the  herd  becoming  purer  each  successive  gen- 
eration. Thus,  it  can  be  seen  that  by  grading  up  a  herd,  a 
farmer  can  eventually  become  a  breeder  of  practically  pure- 
bred hogs. 

It  often  happens  that  when  such  a  process  of  grading  up 
is  carried  on  that  there  will  be  animals  among  the  offspring 
that  revert  to  forms  similar  to  the  native  or  grade  sows  with 
which  the  breeding  was  started.  Any  such  animals  should, 
of  course,  be  rejected.  Only  the  best — that  is,  those  that 
most  nearly  approach  the  pure-bred  type — should  be  kept 
for  breeding. 

4.  Selection  of  a  Pure-Bred  Herd  Boar. — A  boar  selected 
for  use  in  a  herd  should  be  pure-bred  and  have  the  desirable 
characteristics  of  his  breed.  He  should  show  marked  mas- 
culinity. In  a  good  boar  this  character  shows  strongly 
about  the  head  and  forequarters.  The  head  may  be  slightly 
coarse,  the  neck  should  be  full  and  slightly  arched,  and  the 


6  SWINE  BREEDING  §  30 

shoulder  somewhat  heavy.  The  forequarters  are  usually  a 
little  heavier  than  the  hindquarters,  and  this  difference 
becomes  more  pronounced  as  age  increases,  as  the  shields — 
the  thickened  skin  over  the  shoulders — develop  with  age. 
Masculinity  in  a  boar  denotes  vigor,  stamina,  strength,  and 
ability  to  stamp  his  get  with  his  own  characters. 

Generally  speaking,  the  coat  of  hair  on  a  boar  is  a  little 
coarser  than  that  on  a  sow;  nevertheless,  a  boar  should  not 
have  exceedingly  coarse  hair  over  his  neck  and  crest.  He 
should  be  particularly  strong  in  feet  and  legs,  and  should  show 
good  development  in  back,  loin,  sides,  and  hams.  In  addi- 
tion, he  should  be  active  but  at  the  same  time  docile. 

5.  Selection  of  a  Pure-Bred  Brood  Sow. — In  selecting  a 
pure-bred  brood  sow  for  use  in  a  herd,  the  breeder  should 
have  in  mind  the  type  of  animal  described  in  the  standard  of 
excellence  for  the  breed  to  which  the  animal  belongs,  and 
should  be  sure  that  the  points  described  there  are  present  in 
the  animal.  He  should  see  that  the  color  and  markings 
accord  with  the  standard  set  for  the  breed,  that  the  shape  of 
face,  set  and  shape  of  ears,  color  of  eyes,  etc.  are  as  they 
should  be.  These  may  seem  like  fancy  points,  but  they  are 
of  value  when  it  comes  to  showing  an  animal  at  a  livestock 
show  or  when  trying  to  sell  it  for  an  animal  true  to  the  breed. 
If  a  grade  sow  for  breeding  were  being  selected,  no  attention 
would  be  paid  to  the  so-called  fancy  points. 

Besides  the  fancy  points,  there  are  other  qualities  to  be 
considered.  The  sow  should  have  the  indications  of  a  good 
feeder  and  be  of  a  rather  large,  roomy  type,  showing  plenty 
of  size  for  her  age,  with  a  good  length  and  depth  of  body, 
well-sprung  ribs,  broad  back  and  loin,  and  deep,  well-filled 
hams.  In  addition,  she  should  have  straight  legs  set  well 
apart  and  strong  feet  on  short  pasterns.  A  sow  with  broken- 
down  feet  is  very  objectionable.  Her  top  line  should  be 
straight  or  preferably  show  a  slight  arch  upwards.  A  sagging 
back  should  not  be  tolerated  in  a  brood  sow,  for  if  there  is 
even  a  slight  sag  in  her  back  before  she  is  bred,  she  is  liable 
to  become  saddlebacked  when  she  is  carrying  her  litter,  and 


§  30  SWINE  BREEDING  7 

besides  this,  there  would  be  a  tendency  for  the  weakness  to 
appear  in  her  offspring.  A  good  brood  sow  should  have  at 
least  from  12  to  14  teats,  for  a  large  number  of  teats  gen- 
erally denotes  a  prolific  breeder  and  one  that  can  suckle  a 
good-sized  litter  of  pigs. 

CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  BREEDING 

STOCK 


BOARS 

6.  Boars  that  are  to  be  used  as  sires  in  a  herd  of  breeding 
swine  need  proper  care  and  management.  First  of  all,  a 
breeding  boar  should  have  the  proper  kind  and  quantity  of 
feed.  A  mixture  of  ground  oats,  corn  meal,  and  wheat 
middlings,  to  which  is  added  small  quantities  of  salt  and 
linseed  meal  and  the  whole  mixed  with  sweet  skim  milk 
to  form  a  slop,  makes  a  satisfactory  feed.  The  quantity  that 
is  given  will  depend,  of  course,  on  the  size  of  the  animal  and 
his  appetite.  A  good  rule  to  follow  in  regard  to  quantity 
is  to  feed  him  enough  to  keep  him  in  a  fair  condition,  but 
not  enough  to  keep  him  fat.  In  addition  to  the  above  ration, 
a  quantity  of  charcoal,  lime,  wood  ashes,  and  iron  sulphate 
should  always  be  kept  in  the  feed  lot  in  such  a  place  where 
they  will  be  available  for  the  boar. 

Exercise  is  necessary  for  a  boar,  and  for  this  reason  he 
should  be  given  the  run  of  a  small  pasture.  Boars  kept  in 
small  pens  where  they  cannot  get  exercise  are  not  likely  to 
be  in  strong,  vigorous  breeding  condition. 

A  boar,  to  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  breeding,  should 
not  be  used  for  service  too  frequently.  Until  he  becomes 
fully  matured,  one  service  a  day  is  all  he  should  be  allowed 
to  give;  after  he  is  matured,  two  services  a  day  may  be 
allowed.  Under  exceptional  conditions  three  services  a  day 
may  be  allowed,  although,  as  a  rule,  such  practice  is  not  best, 
for  it  may  result  in  lessening  the  vitality  of  the  boar  and  in 
the  production  of  litters  of  weak  pigs.  A  breeder  will  be 
much  surer  of  keeping  his  boar  in  good  breeding  condition 


8  SWINE  BREEDING  §  30 

and  of  having  vigorous  litters  of  pigs  if  he  is  careful  about  the 
frequency  with  which  he  uses  the  breeding  boars  for  service. 
When  a  boar  is  placed  with  a  sow  for  copulating,  he  should 
be  removed  as  soon  as  the  service  is  finished.  If  left  there 
longer  he  may  serve  the  sow  again,  which,  besides  being 
unnecessary,  is  weakening  to  the  boar.  Some  breeders  make 
the  mistake  of  using  very  young  boars  for  breeding.  This  is 
not  a  good  practice,  for  it  will  not  only  result  in  a  weakened 
boar,  but  the  resulting  litters  are  very  likely  to  be  small  and 
the  pigs  weak  and  puny.  A  boar  near  maturity  is  preferable 
to  a  very  young  one. 

SOWS 

7.  Appearance  of  Heat  in  Sows. — Sows  that  have  been 
properly  fed  from  weaning  time  first  come  into  the  period 
of  heat,  at  about  7  or  8  months  of  age,  although  if  they  have 
been  forced  in  their  early  growth  the  period  may  occur 
somewhat  earlier.  After  the  first  occurrence  the  sow  comes 
in  heat  about  every  21  days,  unless,  of  course,  she  has 
been  bred.  The  period  of  heat  in  a  sow  usually  lasts  about 
3  days.  A  sow  in  heat  is  restless  and  when  in  sight  of  a  male 
hog  will  give  a  sort  of  bark  or  call.  The  swelling  of  the  vulva 
is  another  indication, of  heat. 

8.  Period  of  Breeding  for  Sows. — Sows  should  not  be  bred 
until  they  are  at  least  a  year  old,  and  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  better  results  are  obtained  if  they  are  not  bred  until  they 
are  from  14  to  16  months  old.  Farmers  too  often  breed  their 
sows  when  they  are  not  more  than  7  or  8  months  old.  Such 
early  breeding  is  a  mistake,  and  those  who  continue  the  prac- 
tice will  find  that  each  year  the  litters  become  smaller  and  the 
pigs  lower  in  vitality  and  hence  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

A  sow  will  farrow  stronger  pigs  and  more  of  them  in  a  litter 
when  she  is  from  2  to  6  years  old  than  at  any  other  time  in 
her  life.  However,  on  many  swine-breeding  farms  it  is  a 
custom  to  keep  for  breeding  purposes,  as  long  as  she  lives, 
any  sow  that  has  proved  to  be  a  regular  producer  and  a 
good  mother. 


§30  SWINE  BREEDING  9 

9.  Care  of  Sow  After  Service. — A  sow,  after  being  served 
by  a  boar,  should  be  placed  in  a  pen  or  yard  by  herself  and 
left  there  until  she  passes  out  of  the  period  of  heat.  This 
will  prevent  her  from  being  annoyed  by  other  sows. 

10.  Sterility  in  Sows. — If  a  sow  is  kept  in  only  fair  grow- 
ing condition  there  will  seldom  be  trouble  of  failure  to  breed, 
although  animals  that  are  being  fitted  for  show  purposes 
sometimes  give  evidence  of  sterility.  To  correct  a  sterile 
condition  in  sows,  some  successful  swine  raisers  recommend 
drenching  the  sows  with  a  dose  of  2  ounces  of  Epsom  salts 
dissolved  in  $  pint  of  cold  water,  following  this  with  10  grains 
of  iodide  of  potassium  in  her  feed  twice  daily  for  2  weeks. 
Sows  sometimes  fail  to  breed  on  account  of  being  thin,  weak, 
and  in  a  run-down  condition.  To  improve  this  condition  it 
is  advisable  to  give  the  sow  all  the  good  feed  she  will  eat, 
to  which  is  added  twice  daily  from  20  to  40  drops  of  tincture 
of  iron  chloride,  the  number  of  drops  being  regulated  by  the 
size  of  the  animal. 

11.  Selection  of  Sows  for  Breeding. — A  breeder,  when 
selecting  a  number  of  sows  for  breeding,  should  be  sure  that 
the  animals  are  as  nearly  alike  in  form  ami  type  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  get  them.  Uniformity  is  desired  because  the  result- 
ing offspring  are  all  likely  to  be  uniform,  which  is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  marketing  swine.  A  lot  of  hogs  uniform  in 
color,  size,  markings,  etc.  will  sell  for  a  better  price  than  a  lot 
of  the  same  age  and  weight  that  are  lacking  in  uniformity. 
In  the  mating  of  sows,  the  boar  used  should  be  of  a  type 
similar  to  the  sows,  or  otherwise  there  may  be  a  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  offspring. 

12.  Period  of  Gestation  in  Sows. — The  period  of  gestation 
in  sows  is  from  112  to  1 10  days.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
the  time  runs  a  day  or  two  longer  than  1 10,  but  unless  there  is 
a  prsmature  birth  it  seldom  is  less  than  1 12  days.  Table  I 
shows  the  date  after  breeding  at  which  a  sow  is  due  to  farrow. 
This  gestation  table  will  be  found  helpful  in  ascertaining  the 
date  when  litters  of  pigs  may  be  expected. 

243—9 


10 


SWIXE  BREEDING 


§  30 


TABLE    I 

GESTATION     TABLE     FOR    SWINE 


Date 

Due  to 

Date 

Due  to 

Date 

Due  to 

Bred 

Farrow 

Bred 

Farrow- 

Bred 

Farrow 

Jan.  i 

Apr.  22 

Feb.  1 

May  23 

Mar.  1 

June  20 

2 

23 

2 

24 

2 

21 

3 

24 

3 

25 

3 

2  2 

4 

25 

4 

26 

4 

23 

5 

26 

5 

27 

5 

24 

6 

27 

6 

28 

6 

25 

7 

28 

7 

29 

7 

26 

8 

29 

8 

3° 

8 

27 

9 

30 

9 

31 

9 

28 

IO. 

May  1 

10 

June  1 

10 

29 

ii 

2 

1 1 

2 

1  1 

30 

12 

3 

12 

i 

12 

July  1 

13 

4 

13 

4 

13 

2 

•   14 

5 

14 

5 

14 

3 

15 

6 

15 

6 

15 

4 

16 

7 

16 

7 

16 

5 

17 

8 

17 

8 

17 

6 

18 

9 

18 

9 

18 

7 

19 

10 

19 

10 

19 

8 

20 

11 

20 

1 1 

20 

9 

21 

12 

21 

12 

21 

10 

22 

13 

22 

13 

22 

11 

23 

14 

23 

14 

23 

12 

24 

15 

24 

IS 

24 

13 

25 

16 

25 

16 

25 

14 

26 

17 

26 

17 

26 

J5 

27 

18 

27 

18 

27 

16 

28 

19 

28 

19 

28 

17 

29 

20 

29 

18 

30 

21 

30 

19 

3i 

22 

3i 

20 

30 


SWINE   BREEDING 


11 


TAIJIjE    I— (Continued) 


Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Farrow 

Date 
Bred 

!  May  1 

Due  to 

Farrow 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Farrow 

Apr.  I 

July  21 

Aug.  20 

June  1 

Sept.  20 

2 

22 

2 

21 

2 

21 

3 

23 

3 

22 

3 

22 

4 

24 

4 

23 

4 

23 

5 
6 

25 
26 

5 
6 

24 
25 

5 
6 

24 
25 

7 
8 

2/ 
28 

7 
8 

•26 

27 

7 
8 

26 

27 

9 

29 

9 

28 

9 

28 

TO 

3° 

TO 

29 

10 

29 

1  1 

3i 

I  I 

30 

1  1 

30 

12 

Aug.  1 

12 

33 

12 

Oct.   1 

13 

2 

13 

Sept,  1 

13 

2 

14 

3 

14 

2- 

14 

3 

J5 

4 

l5 

3 

*5 

4 

16 

5 

16 

4 

16 

5 

17 

18 

6 

7 

17 
18 

5 
6 

17 

18 

6 

7 

19 

8 

*9 

7 

19 

8 

20 

9 

20 

8 

20 

9 

21 

10 

21 

9 

21 

10 

22 

1 1 

22 

10 

22 

11 

23 

12 

23 

11 

23 

12 

24 

13 

24 

12 

24 

13 

25 

M 

25 

13 

25 

14 

26 

x5 

26 

14 

26 

IS 

27 
28 

16 
17 

28 

IS 

16 

27 
28 

16 
17 

29 

18 

29 

17 

29 

18 

30 

19 

30 
31 

1 

18 
19 

30 

*9 

[2 


SWIXE   BREED  IXC 


$30 


TAIJLE    1— (Continue  J) 


Date 

Due  to 

Date 

Due  to 

Date 

DlK 

B:ed 

Farrow 

Bred 

Farrow 

Bred 

Farrow 

July  i 

Oct.  20 

Aug.  1 

Nov.  20 

Sept.  1 

Dec.  21 

2 

21 

2 

21 

2 

2  _> 

3 

22 

3 

22 

3 

23 

4 

23 

4 

23 

4 

24 

5 

24 

5 

24 

5 

25 

6 

25 

6 

25 

6 

26 

7 

26 

7 

26 

s  7 

-7 

8 

27 

8 

27 

8 

28 

9 

28 

9 

28 

9 

29 

IO 

29 

10 

29 

10 

3° 

1 1 

30 

1 1 

3° 

11 

3i 

12 

31 

12 

Dec.  .  1 

12 

Jan.   1 

J3 

Nov.  1 

13 

2 

13 

2 

M 

2 

14 

3 

14 

3 

*5 

3 

15 

4 

15 

4 

16 

4 

16 

5 

16 

5 

i7 

5 

17 

6 

17 

6 

iS 

6 

18 

7 

18 

7 

J9 

7 

19 

8 

19 

S 

2G 

8 

20 

9 

20 

9 

21 

9 

21 

10 

2 1 

10 

22 

10 

22 

11 

22 

1 1 

23 

1 1 

23 

12 

23 

12 

24 

12 

24 

13 

24 

J3 

25 

13 

25 

14 

25 

14 

26 

M 

26 

r5 

26 

15 

27 

i5 

27 

16 

27 

16 

28 

16 

28 

17 

28 

[7 

29 

17 

29 

18 

29 

iS 

30 

18 

3° 

19 

30 

19 

31 

19 

31 

20 

8  30 


SWINE   MRKEDING 


13 


TABLE   I— (Continued) 


Date 

Due  1 1 . 

Date 

Due  to 

Date 

Due  to 

Bred 

Farn  >\v 

Bred 

Farrow 

Bred 

Farrow 

Oct.  i 

Jan.  20 

Nov.   1 

Feb.  20 

Dec.  1 

Mar.  22 

2 

21 

2 

21 

2 

23 

3 

22 

3 

22 

3 

24 

4 

23 

4 

23 

4 

25 

5 

24 

5 

24 

5 

26 

6 

25 

6 

25 

6 

27 

7 

26 

7 

26 

7 

28 

8 

27 

8 

27 

8 

29 

9 

28 

9 

28 

9 

30 

IO 

29 

10 

Mar.  1 

10 

31 

ii 

30 

1 1 

2 

11 

Apr.  1 

12 

3> 

1  2 

3 

12 

2 

13 

Feb.  1 

13 

4 

13 

3 

M 

2 

M 

5 

14 

4 

J5 

3 

is 

6 

lS 

5 

16 

4 

16 

7 

16 

6 

i? 

5 

17 

8 

17 

7 

■  8 

6 

18 

9 

18 

8 

>9 

7 

19 

10 

19 

9 

20 

8 

20 

1 1 

20 

10 

21 

9 

21 

12 

21 

1 1 

22 

10 

22 

13 

22 

12 

23 

1 1 

23 

14 

23 

13 

24 

12 

24 

15 

24 

M 

25 

13 

25 

16 

25 

15 

26 

14 

26 

17 

26 

16 

27 

15 

27 

18 

27 

17 

28 

16 

28 

19 

28 

18 

29 

17 

29 

20 

29 

i<) 

30 

18 

30 

21 

3° 

20 

31 

19 

31 

21 

14  SWINE  BREEDING  §  30 

13.  Signs  of  Pregnancy  in  Sows. — If  a  sow  has  been  bred 
successfully  there  will  be  an  absence  of  the  period  of  heat. 
Signs  of  heat  should  be  looked  for  about  21  days  after  the 
sow  was  bred,  or  at  the  time  when  heat  would  be  due.  If 
no  signs  are  noticed  it  can  generally  be  concluded  that  the 
sow  is  pregnant.  There  is  no  external  evidence,  however, 
until  a  fulness  is  seen  along  the  sides  and  belly  of  the  sow. 

14.  Exercise  for  Sows  During  Pregnancy. — A  sow  during 
pregnancy  needs  much  exercise  to  induce  appetite,  strengthen 
muscles,  and  keep  her  in  vigor  and  health.  Lack  of  exercise 
will  often  result  in  the  loss  of  a  litter.  A  fair-sized  pasture 
lot  in  which  the  sows  can  walk  about  in  search  of  feed  is  a 
good  provision,  as  they  will  then  get  the  needed  exercise. 

15.  Bedding  for  Farrowing  Nest. — Bright,  dry  rye  straw 
cut  into  lengths  of  1  or  2  inches  makes  the  best  kind  of  bed- 
ding for  the  nest  where  sows  are  to  farrow.  The  cutting  can 
be  done  by  running  the  straw  through  a  fodder  cutter.  Straw 
cut  into  short  lengths  makes  a  much  better  bed  than  long 
straw,  as  the  pigs  do  not  become  tangled  in  it  so  easily. 

The  next  best  bedding  is  shredded  corn  fodder.  This 
makes  satisfactory  bedding,  and,  in  fact,  is  preferred  by  some 
persons  to  rye  straw.  "Wheat  straw  is  also  good  material 
for  bedding.  Unless  it  has  been  much  broken  by  the  thrash- 
ing machine  it,  like  rye  straw,  should  be  cut  into  short  lengths. 
Oat  straw  is  not  a  satisfactory  material  for  use  in  farrowing 
nests;  it  is  so  easily  broken  that  it  soon  becomes  fine  and 
chaffy  when  used  as  bedding.  In  addition,  it  has  more  of  a 
tendency  to  heat  than  other  straws.  The  effects  of  heating 
in  farrowing  nests  are  described  in  the  next  paragraph. 

The  bedding  in  a  farrowing  nest,  especially  after  the  litter 
has  been  farrowed,  should  be  changed  at  least  twice  a  week. 
If  this  is  neglected  the  nest  will  become  damp,  which  con- 
dition will  cause  it  to  heat  and  steam,  and  as  a  result  the  pigs 
are  likely  to  suffer  from  injury  to  the  skin,  which  may  extend 
to  the  tails  and  result  in  their  loss. 

16.  Best  Months  for  Farrowing. — The  best  months  to 
have  litters  farrowed  will  depend  on  the  location  of  the  farm 


§  30  SWINE  BREEDING  15 

and  on  the  care  that  can  be  given  the  litter.  In  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  provinces  of  Canada, 
unless  special  care  can  be  given  the  pigs,  the  sows  should  be 
bred  so  that  the  litters  will  not  be  farrowed  until  between 
the  middle  of  March  and  the  first  of  May.  In  southern  sec- 
tions they  may  come  earlier.  In  northern  sections,  if  the 
pigs  were  farrowed  earlier  than  the  time  given,-  they  would, 
on  account  of  the  cold,  be  sure  to  lie  in  their  nests  day  after 
day  without  taking  much  exercise.  Lack  of  exercise  would 
eventually  result  in  the  loss  of  the  pigs.  A  young  pig  that 
does  not  take  enough  exercise  is  likely  to  succumb  to  a  dis- 
ease known  as  thumps.  Pigs  that  have  this  disease  become 
broad  across  the  shoulders  and  through  the  chest.  Their 
hearts  beat  weakly,  and  if  they  try  to  walk  their  sides  jerk 
and  thump  with  each  heart  beat.  If  pigs  are  farrowed  during 
the  time  given,  the  weather  will  probably  be  warm  and  there 
will  be  sunshine  to  tempt  them  to  leave  their  nests  and  fol- 
low the  sows  about  the  pasture;  as  a  result,  they  get  the 
needed  exercise  and  are  not  so  likely  to  be  troubled  with  the 
thumps. 

17.  It  sometimes  happens  in  the  breeding  business  that 
litters  of  pigs  are  desired  early  in  the  season.  When  such  is 
the  case,  proper  precaution  for  saving  the  pigs  should  be 
taken.  The  sow  about  to  farrow  should  be  placed  in  a  warm, 
dry,  clean  place  and  an  attendant  should  be  on  hand  when 
the  litter  is  farrowed.  A  small  box  that  will  just  about  hold 
the  average  litter  of  pigs  should  be  in  readiness  and  cut  straw 
or  chaff  should  be  placed  in  the  box  for  a  nest ;  warmth  should 
be  provided  by  placing  hot  stones  or  bricks  in  the  straw  or 
chaff.  As  each  pig  is  born  the  attendant  should  place  it  in 
the  warm  box.  After  all  are  born  and  they  have  become 
warm  and  dry  they  should  be  returned  to  the  sow  for  a  feed. 
Each  day  from  the  time  the  pigs  are  born  until  warm  weather, 
an  attendant  should  exercise  the  pigs  by  driving  them  about 
the  lot.  In  ordinary  farm  breeding  establishments  the  extra 
trouble  caused  by  early  farrowed  pigs  will  not  pay ;  hence  the 
reason  for  the  general  practice  of  breeding  for  late  farrowing. 


16  SWINE  BREEDING  §30 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  Central  States  and  in  the  most 
northern  of  the  Southern  States  pigs  may  be  farrowed  as  early 
as  February,  for  in  these  regions  the  weather  will  be  warm 
enough  at  this  time  of  the  year  for  the  pigs  to  take  exercise. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  Southern  States  pigs  may  be  far- 
rowed at  any  time  of  the  year,  as  the  temperature  will  never 
be  low  enough  to  prevent  them  from  exercising. 

As  a  rule,  the  fall  litters  of  pigs  in  the  Northern  States 
should  be  farrowed  during  the  last  part  of  August  or  the  first 
part  of  September.  When  farrowed  at  this  time  they  can  be 
weaned  before  winter.  Late-farrowed  fall  pigs  that  have 
to  be  weaned  about  December  are  likely  to  be  stunted  in 
growth.  Late-farrowed  pigs  can  be  raised,  however,  if  they 
are  kept  in  a  warm  place  and  compelled  to  take  daily  exercise. 

In  the  northern  sections  it  is  a  poor  plan  to  have  pigs  far- 
rowed during  July  or  the  first  part  of  August,  on  account 
of  the  prevalence  of  flies  at  this  season.  Flies  are  the  cause 
of  much  worry  to  a  litter  of  young  pigs,  and  as  a  result  the 
pigs  may  become  so  weak  and  stunted  that  no  amount  of 
later  care  and  attention  will  make  up  for  the  setback  they 
received  during  the  early  part  of  their  lives. 

18.  Pig  Eating  Among  Sows. — Sows  that  have  not  been 
properly  cared  for  previous  to  the  farrowing  of  their  litters 
have  been  known  to  kill  the  pigs  of  their  own  litters  and  eat 
them.  A  sow  fed  on  a  ration  that  contains  sufficient  protein 
and  placed  where  she  can  get  exercise  is  not  likely  to  eat  her 
pigs.  On  the  contrary,  a  sow  fed  on  a  very  fattening  ration, 
such  as  one  of  corn  or  corn  meal  alone,  and  kept  in  a  small  pen 
where  she  cannot  take  exercise,  is  likely  to  crave  protein  to  the 
extent  that  she  will  kill  and  eat  her  litter.  Sometimes  a  sow 
will  destroy  the  whole  Utter  at  once;  other  sows  will  devour 
the  pigs  at  intervals  of  about  a  day  apart.  The  remedy,  as 
explained,  is  a  proper  ration,  as  described  in  Swine  Feeding 
and  Judging. 

19.  Breeding  of  Sows  After  Farrowing. — A  sow  should  not 
be  bred  until  after  her  litter  has  been  weaned.  As  a  rule, 
pigs  will  be  weaned  about   12  weeks  after  they  are  born, 


§30  SWINE  BREEDING  17 

although,  if  plenty  of  sweet,  whole  milk  is  available,  they  can 
be  weaned  in  from  8  to  10  weeks.  A  sow  will  come  into  heat 
about  the  third  day  after  farrowing  a  litter,  and  there  are 
farmers  who  are  foolish  enough  to  breed  her  at  that  time. 
Such  a  practice  is  wrong,  as  a  sow  should  not  be  required  to 
nurse  one  litter  while  carrying  another;  she  cannot  do  jus- 
tice to  either  under  such  a  condition. 

A  farmer  can  have  his  sows  produce  two  litters  a  year, 
but  to  do  so  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  first  litter  to  be  weaned 
about  June  1,  and  when  pigs  are  weaned  at  this  early  date 
they  should  have  been  farrowed  sometime  the  last  of  March 
and  be  weaned  at  about  8  or  10  weeks  of  age.  Such  a  prac- 
tice means  work  for  an  attendant,  both  in  caring  for  an  early 
litter  of  pigs  and  in  providing  good,  nourishing  feed  for  the 
litter,  so  that  they  can  be  weaned  at  an  early  age. 

If  pigs  are  weaned  by  June  1,  the  sow  can  be  bred  soon 
after  and  will  farrow  sometime  in  September,  which  will  make 
it  possible  to  wean  the  second  litter  before  the  cold  weather 
of  winter  sets  in. 

20.     Management  of  Sows  After  Pigs  Are  Weaned. — In 

the  summer,  after  spring  litters  are  weaned,  sows  should 
be  placed  in  a  good  pasture,  preferably  one  containing  a 
grove  of  trees.  If  a  second  litter  is  desired  they  should,  of 
course,  be  bred  as  early  as  possible  so  that  the  litter  can  be 
weaned  before  winter.  If  the  sows  are  not  excessively  thin 
they  will  require  no  feed  other  than  pasture.  However, 
sows  that  have  become  thin  from  nursing  their  litters  should 
be  given  a  little  grain  in  addition  to  the  pasture.  Sows  that 
forage  on  pasture  during  the  summer  will  generally  farrow 
larger  litters  of  pigs  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring,  largely  on 
account  of  the  increased  exercise  they  take  during  the  sum- 
mer over  what  they  take  during  the  winter. 

Sows  that  farrow  in  the  fall  should,  during  the  winter, 
have  a  warm,  dry  place  where  they  can  sleep  and  should  be 
given  the  run  of  any  fields  that  may  be  available.  A  corn 
field  from  which  the  ears  of  corn  have  been  gathered  but  in 
which  the  stalks  still  stand,  or  a  pasture  of  some  kind  that  is 


is  SWINE   BREEDING  §30 

not  entirely  covered  with  snow,  are  good  places  for  them  to 
range  over  in  search  of  feed.  As  but  little  forage  is  available 
in  the  fields,  the  sows  must  be  fed  a  grain  ration.  In  the 
early  spring  those  that  are  to  farrow  should  be  taken  to  the 
farrowing  houses  and  be  kept  warm  until  after  the  litters  are 
farrowed. 

MISCELLANEOUS   INFORMATION 

21.  Removal  of  the  Tusks  of  Young  Pigs. — Young  pigs 
that  are  nursing  will  often  fight  one  another  for  the  possession 
of  a  teat,  and  even  at  this  early  age  will  make  use  of  their 
tusks.  This  results  in  many  lacerated  mouths.  In  addition, 
the  teats  of  the  sows  sometimes  become  sore  from  this  same 
cause.  The  best  way  to  prevent  these  troubles  is  to  remove 
the  tusks,  which  can  easily  be  done  by  taking  a  pig  under  the 
left  arm,  opening  his  mouth  and  with  a  pair  of  pinchers 
breaking  off  near  the  gums  the  tusks  on  both  sides  of  the 
mouth.  Any  sores  that  may  have  been  caused  before  the 
tusks  are  removed  should  be  treated  with  vaseline  or  some 
healing  ointment. 

22.  Marking  of  Litters. — The  pigs  of  each  litter  should 
be  marked  in  some  way  so  that  the  different  litters  can  be 
distinguished.  There  are  on  the  market  several  kinds  of 
labels  that  can  be  attached  to  the  ears  of  the  pigs,  but  most 
hog  raisers  do  not  use  them  because  of  the  ease  with  which 
they  are  lost  from  the  ears.  A  method  of  marking  that  has 
been  found  to  give  good  satisfaction  is  an  arrangement  of 
notches  that  are  punched  in  the  edges  of  the  ears  of  the 
pigs.  A  good  instrument  for  making  the  notches  is  a  hand 
punch  such  as  is  used  by  harness  makers  for  making  holes 
in  leather. 

An  arrangement  of  notches  that  has  been  found  satisfac- 
tory for  the  marking  of  pigs,  or  even  older  hogs,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  6.  As  the  litters  are  farrowed  they  are  marked  as 
litter  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  etc.,  each  pig  of  a  particular  litter 
receiving  the  same  mark.  A  notch  in  the  lower  edge  of  the 
right  ear,  as  shown  in  1,  means  litter  No.  1;  two  notches  in 


20  SWINE  BREEDING  §30 

the  same  ear,  as  shown  in  fB,  means  litter  No.  2;  a  notch  in 
the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear,  as  shown  in  3,  means  litter 
3 ;  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  3  and  1,  as  shown  in  4, 
means  litter  No.  4;  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  3  and  2, 
as  shown  in  5,  means  litter  No.  5;  two  notches  in  the  left  ear, 
as  shown  in  6,  indicates  litter  No.  6;  a  combination  of  the 
notches  of  6  and  /,  as  shown  in  7,  means  litter  No.  7;  a  com- 
bination of  the  notches  of  6  and  2,  as  shown  in  8,  means 
litter  No.  8;  three  notches  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear, 
as  shown  in  9,  means  litter  No.  9;  a  notch  in  the  upper  edge 
of  the  right  ear,  as  shown  in  10,  means  litter  No.  10.  Litter 
No.  11  is  indicated  by  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  10 
and  /;  litter  No.  12,  by  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  10 
and  2;  litter  No.  13,  by  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  10 
and  3;  litter  No.  14,  by  a  combination  of  the  notches  of 
10  and  4.  or  °f  10,  3,  and  1 ;  litter  No.  15,  by  a  combination 
of  the  notches  of  10  and  o;  litter  No.  16,  by  a  combination  of 
the  notches  of  10  and  6;  litter  No.  17,  by  a  combination 
of  the  notches  of  10  and  7;  litter  No.  18,  by  a  combination  of 
the  notches  of  10  and  8;  and  litter  No.  19,  by  a  combina- 
tion of  the  notches  of  10  and  9,  as  shown,  respectively,  in 
11,  12,  13,  14,  16,  16,  17,  18,  and  19.  Litter  No.  20  is  indi- 
cated by  two  notches  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  right  ear,  as 
shown  in  20,  and  the  numbers  from  21  to  29,  inclusive,  are 
indicated  by  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  20  and  1,  2,  3,  etc. 
Litter  No.  30  is  indicated  by  a  notch  in  the  upper  edge  of  the 
left  ear;  litter  No.  40,  by  a  notch  in  the  upper  edge  of  each 
ear,  or  a  combination  of  30  and  10;  litter  No.  50,  by  a  com- 
bination of  the  notches  of  20  and  30;  litter  No.  60,  by  two 
notches  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  left  ear;  litter  No.  70,  by  a 
combination  of  the  notches  of  60  and  10;  litter  No.  80,  by  a 
combination  of  the  notches  of  60  and  20;  litter  No.  90,  by 
three  notches  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  left  ear;  litter  No.  100, 
by  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  90  and  10,  as  shown, 
respectively,  in  40,  50,  60,  70,  80,  90,  and  100.  The  inter- 
vening numbers  are  indicated  by  combinations  of  these 
numbers  with  /,  2,  3,  etc.,  as  already  explained  for  numbers 
between  20  and  30. 


§30  SWINE  BREEDING  21 

23.  Care  of  Show  Swine. — Swine  that  are  being  fitted  for 
show  purposes  require  more  and  better  care  than  is  usually 
given  to  those  that  are  to  be  sold  for  pork.  This  extra  care 
should  begin  even  before  the  pigs  are  farrowed  by  paying 
particular  attention  to  the  feeding  of  the  sows  during  the 
period  of  gestation.  The  ration  of  the  sow  should  contain 
abundant  bone-building  material.  This  can  be  provided  for 
by  adding  a  tablespoonful  of  steamed  bone  meal  to  her  daily 
ration. 

After  the  show  pigs  are  farrowed  they  should  be  fed  a  good 
ration  such  as  described  in  Swine  Feeding  and  Judging. 
To  insure  a  good  appetite,  it  is  advisable  to  vary  the  ration 
from  time  to  time  by  substituting  different  grains  or  mill 
feeds.  The  ration,  too,  must  at  all  times  be  palatable  and 
relished  by  the  pigs.  Condimental  foods,  of  which  there  are 
many  on  the  market,  can  often  be  added  in  small  quantities 
to  rations  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  more  palatable. 
Animals  being  fitted  for  show  purposes  should  be  given  all  the 
feed  they  can  assimilate.  In  addition,  they  should  be  brushed 
daily,  and  occasionally  washed  with  soap  and  water  to  which 
a  little  disinfectant  has  been  added.  The  skin  and  hair  must 
be  kept  free  from  dirt  and  other  foreign  substances. 

An  animal  that  is  in  the  right  condition  for  the  show  ring 
is  said  to  be  in  bloom,  that  is,  in  a  condition  of  full  flesh  at 
every  point  yet  not  so  overloaded  with  flesh  as  to  appear 
clumsy;  in  addition,  the  coat  is  bright  and  glossy,  and  the 
animal  presents  a  general  appearance  of  perfect  health. 

The  animals  should  be  handled  enough  to  make  them  tame 
and  easily  driven  from  place  to  place.  Exercise  is  necessary 
for  show  animals,  as  it  helps  to  keep  them  in  good  health, 
and  in  addition  makes  them  able  to  walk  into  the  show  ring 
with  a  sprightly  step.  This  is  an  advantage  when  they  are 
to  be  judged. 

The  claws  sometimes  become  so  long  as  to  present  an 
unsightly  appearance  and  to  interfere  with  walking.  In 
such  cases  they  may  be  shortened  or  trimmed  with  a  pair  of 
pruning  shears  or  other  suitable  instrument.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  cut  into  the  quick — that  is,  the  fleshy  part  of 


22  SWINE  BREEDING  §  30 

the  toe.  Trimming  can  be  most  conveniently  done  when  the 
animal  is  lying  down.  It  is  not  difficult  to  induce  hogs  to  lie 
down  whenever  desired  by  scratching  the  side  and  upper 
part  of  the  belly  with  the  ends  of  the  fingers. 

An  animal  older  than  a  spring  pig,  when  fitted  for  show, 
should  have  shed  its  old  coat  and  regained  a  new  one.  The 
frequent  washing  and  brushing  will  tend  to  get  the  old  coat 
off  quickly.  To  be  sure  that  pigs  will  have  new  coats  by  fall, 
extra  care  should  begin  in  May.  The  old  coats  will  then  be 
off  about  the  first  of  August  and  new  ones  ready  by  early  fall. 

When  ready  for  the  show  ring,  the  coats  of  the  animals 
should  be  treated  with  a  dressing  of  equal  parts  of  olive  oil 
and  alcohol.  This  mixture  should  be  well  shaken  and  rubbed 
into  the  coats  with  a  sponge  or  a  brush.  It  will  be  found  that 
the  hair  of  hogs  so  treated  will  have  a  gloss  or  finish  that  will 
do  much  toward  improving  their  general  appearance.  Some 
breeders  use  as  a  dressing  a  mixture  of  fish  oil  and  lampblack, 
but  experience  proves  that  this  preparation  does  not  give 
as  desirable  a  gloss  to  the  coat  of  the  animal  as  does  the  olive 
oil  and  alcohol  preparation.  Besides,  it  is  unpleasant  for  a 
judge,  while  looking  over  the  pigs,  to  smear  himself  with  the 
oil  and  lampblack. 

Just  before  an  animal  goes  into  the  show  ring,  the  long 
hair  on  the  edge  and  inside'of  the  ears  and  on  the  tail,  except 
the  switch,  should  be  clipped.  An  animal  with  this  hair 
removed  presents  a  better  appearance  than  one  that  has  not 
been  clipped. 

24.  Transportation  of  Swine. — Swine  breeders  often  sell 
individual  hogs  that  must  be  shipped  in  crates  to  the  pur- 
chasers. When  shipping  swine  in  crates  there  are  certain 
precautions  that  must  be  taken.  A  hog  that  is  expected  to 
arrive  at  its  destination  in  48  hours  or  less  should  not  be  fed 
the  day  shipment  is  made.  Experience  proves  that  an  animal 
shipped  such  a  distance  without  feed  will  arrive  in  better 
condition  than  if  it  were  fed.  When  shipments  are  made  that 
take  more  than  48  hours,  a  few  pounds  of  dry  feed  should  be 
placed  in  a  bag  and  tied  to  the  crate.     Instructions  on  the 


§  30  SWINE  BREEDING  23 

shipping  card  should  state  that  a  small  quantity  of  feed  is  to 
be  given  to  the  hog  each  day.  Before  the  animal  is  placed  in 
the  crate  it  should  be  brushed  thoroughly  with  a  dry  brush. 
Following  the  dry  brushing,  a  small  quantity  of  liquid  disin- 
fectant should  be  brushed  into  the  coat.  Dry  bedding  is 
then  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  crate  and  the  hog  is  driven 
in  at  one  end,  slats  being  nailed  across  to  prevent  the  animal 
from  getting  out.  The  instructions  on  the  shipping  tag, 
besides  giving  directions  for  feeding  the  animal,  should,  when 
the  shipment  is  made  in  hot  weather,  state  that  the  crate  is 
to  be  placed  near  the  door  of  the  express  car,  and  that,  in 
case  the  hog  becomes  overheated,  a  small  quantity  of  water 
is  to  be  sprinkled  on  its  nose  and  in  the  bottom  of  the  crate, 
but  that  none  is  to  be  thrown  on  its  back. 

A  hog  that  has  been  shipped  must  upon  arrival  be  expect- 
ed to  come  out  of  the  crate  looking  rather  gaunt,  dirty,  and 
tired,  and  it  will  require  special  care  for  a  few  days.  As  soon 
as  the  animal  is  out  of  the  crate  its  coat  should  be  brushed 
with  a  dry  brush,  after  which  a  drink  of  water  and  a  light 
feed  of  mixed  grains  made  into  a  slop  should  be  given.  This 
first  feeding  should  be  about  half  the  quantity  generally  fed 
to  an  animal.  The  hog  should  then  be  placed  in  a  lot  by 
itself  for  a  few  days  and  be  brought  gradually  to  full  feed. 
It  is  a  good  plan,  when  purchasing  swine,  to  ascertain  what 
rations  have  been  fed  and  continue  with  the  same  feed  for 
at  least  a  week  or  so.  Changes  in  the  rations  should  be  made 
gradually. 

25.     Inadvisability  of  Placing  Strange  Hogs  Together. — A 

swine  raiser  should  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  placing  of 
strange  hogs  in  yards  or  pens  with  others ;  no  animal  is  quick- 
er than  a  hog  to  fight  strangers.  However,  when  it  is  nec- 
essary to  place  strange  hogs  together,  they  should  be 
plunged,  one  at  a  time,  into  liquid  disinfectant  in  a  dipping 
tank.  The  sensation  of  the  plunge  will  take  the  attention 
of  the  hogs  from  their  neighbors,  and  the  smell  of  the  disin- 
fectant will  make  it  difficult  for  the  animals  to  recognize 
strangers. 


24  SWINE  BREEDING  §30 

26.  Castration  of  Boars. — When  pigs  are  to  be  fed  for 
the  general  market  or  for  home  use,  the  males  should  be 
castrated  at  an  early  age.  The  castration  of  hogs  consists 
of  the  removal  of  the  testicles,  and  if  the  work  is  done  when 
the  animals  are  young  the  operation  is  not  difficult.  Two 
persons  are  needed  to  castrate  a  pig,  one  to  hold  the  animal 
and  the  other  to  remove  the  testicles.  There  are  several 
methods  of  holding  a  pig  for  castration.  One  that  has  given 
good  satisfaction  is  to  lay  the  pig  on  its  right  side,  hold  the 
head  flat  on  the  ground  with  the  knee,  hold  the  right,  or  lower, 
leg  with  one  hand,  and  with  the  other  raise  the  left,  or  upper, 
leg  and  pull  it  toward  the  belly  of  the  animal.  By  following 
this  plan  the  pig  can  be  held  so  that  it  cannot  move,  and  the 
part  on  which  the  operation  is  to  be  made  will  be  in  the  cor- 
rect position  for  the  person  doing  the  operating.  The  two 
testicles  are  side  by  side  in  a  sack  known  as  the  scrotum. 
They  are  attached  by  a  string  of  tissue  known  as  the  cord. 
There  are  three  layers  of  tissue  surrounding  the  testicles: 
the  skin  of  the  scrotum,  a  white  fibrous  layer,  and  a  thin 
transparent  layer  immediately  around  the  testicles. 

The  details  of  the  operation  are  as  follows :  The  operator 
grasps  the  scrotum  with  his  left  hand  in  such  a  way  as  to 
draw  the  skin  tightly  over  the  testicles  and  cause  the  latter 
to  stand  out  prominently.  The  testicles  appear  as  two 
objects  of  oval  shape  under  the  skin  of  the  scrotum.  An 
incision  is  then  made  through  the  three  walls  of  the  sack 
over  each  testicle.  The  incision  should  be  lengthwise  of  the 
latter  and  not  deep  enough  to  cut  into  it.  The  length  of  the 
openings  so  made  should  be  sufficient  to  enable  the  operator 
to  squeeze  the  testicles  out  easily.  It  is  usually  considered 
well  to  make  the  incision  in  such  a  way  that  pus  and  blood 
will  drain  away  freely,  leaving  no  pocket  in  the  lowest  por- 
tion of  the  scrotum. 

Each  testicle,  as  it  comes  out  of  the  sack,  is  grasped  in  the 
hand  and  pulled  gently  as  long  as  the  cord,  by  which  it  is 
fastened,  emerges.  It  is  then  detached  from  the  cord  by 
scraping  the  cord  with  the  blade  of  the  knife.  This  scraping 
with    the   knife  blade  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  sharp   cut,  on 


§30  SWINE  BREEDING  25 

account  of  the  presence  of  an  artery  in  the  cord.  Scraping 
the  cord  breaks  the  walls  of  the  artery  and  thus  prevents 
excessive  bleeding;  if  a  clean  cut  were  made,  blood  would 
flow  freely  from  the  artery  and  might  possibly  cause  the  death 
of  the  animal.  The  cord  should  be  detached  so  that  but  a 
short  length  is  left  in  the  scrotum.  If  too  great  a  length  is 
left  attached,  the  cord  sometimes  becomes  fastened  to  the 
walls  of  the  scrotum  and,  as  a  result,  a  tumor  known  as 
Shirirron's  cord  is  formed.  A  tumor  of  this  kind  must  be 
removed  surgically  in  the  same  manner  as  are  the  testicles 
in  castration.  If  blood  clots  or  pus  form  in  the  scrotum  after 
castration,  the  part  should  be  syringed  first  with  warm 
boiled  water,  followed  by  a  3-per-cent.  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  water. 

27.  Spaying  of  Sows. — The  spaying  of  sows,  or  the 
removal  of  their  ovaries,  is  less  often  done  than  is  castrating 
of  boars,  largely  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  the  operation. 
Where  a  large  number  of  young  females  are  being  fattened 
for  market,  the  spaying  of  the  lot  might  be  a  financial  advan- 
tage ;  but  where  only  a  small  number  are  being  fed,  spaying 
will  not  pay.  The  reason  for  spaying  is  that  spayed  animals 
make  more  pounds  of  gain  in  weight  in  the  same  length  of 
time  for  the  same  quantity  of  feed  than  unspayed  animals. 
The  operation  of  spaying  sows  is  such  a  difficult  one  that  it 
is  generally  necessary  to  employ  a  qualified  veterinary  sur- 
geon for  the  work.  In  spaying  sows,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
an  opening  into  the  abdominal  cavity  and  remove  the  ovaries. 
An  incision  is  made  in  the  left  side  of  the  animal  just  for- 
wards of  the  hip  bone.  The  fingers  are  inserted  in  this  open- 
ing and  the  ovaries  found  and  removed.  The  cord  by  which 
they  are  attached  is  severed  in  the  same  manner  as  described 
for  castration.  The  incision  is  then  disinfected  with  some 
liquid  solution  and  the  wound  sewed  up,  after  which,  if  the 
work  has  been  properly  done,  it  usually  soon  heals. 

28.  Treatment  of  Overheated  Hogs. — As  hogs  are  easily 
overheated,  crowding  them  too  close  together- in  pens  or 
driving  them  about  during  the  heat  of  the  day  should  be 

243—10 


2C  SWINE  BREEDING  §30 

avoided.  The  symptoms  of  overheating  are  fast  breathing 
and  the  protruding  of  the  tongue  from  the  mouth.  Unless 
properly  cared  for,  overheated  hogs  are  likely  to  die.  The 
proper  treatment  is  first  to  sprinkle  water  on  an  animal's 
nose,  gradually  allowing  it  to  wet  all  of  the  face,  and  then  to 
wet  the  ground  near  by.  It  will  be  found  that  the  hog  will 
lie  down;  when  this  occurs  more  water  should  be  sprinkled 
on  the  face,  and  the  ground  near  by  should  be  kept  wet  until 
the  animal  has  cooled  off.  Under  no  condition  should  large 
quantities  of  cold  water  be  thrown  on  the  body  of  an  over- 
heated hog,  for  the  sudden  chill  that  would  result  is  likely 
to  cause  its  death. 

RECORDING    AND    REGISTERING    OF    SWINE 

29.  Recording  of  Produce. — A  thorough  and  complete 
system  for  recording  the  birth,  pedigree,  description,  mark- 
ings, disposal,  and  other  data  relating  to  offspring,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  termed,  produce,  will  be  found  necessary  by  the 
swine  breeder  if  he  is  to  keep  his  work  on  a  business  basis. 
Such  a  system  should  be  simple  and  convenient  as  well  as 
complete.  A  desirable  system  of  keeping  these  records 
is  by  means  of  the  card  illustrated  in  Fig.  7,  which  shows  the 
opposite  sides;  it  is  perforated  for  filing  in  a  card-index  case. 
On  the  side  shown  in  (a)  is  recorded  the  names  of  the  sire 
and  the  dam  of  the  litter,  and  the  date  of  birth,  sex,  name, 
registry  number,  purchaser,  and  selling  price  of  each  pig. 
The  head  of  a  hog  printed  on  this  side  of  the  card  is  used  for 
recording  the  ear  marks  given  to  the  pigs  of  a  litter,  as  pre- 
viously explained;  this  recording  is  done  by  simply  marking 
the  margin  of  the  ear  with  a  pen  or  pencil,  as  is  shown  by  the 
two  marks  on  the  right  ear  and  the  one  on  the  left.  On  the 
side  of  the  card  shown  in  (b)  is  recorded  the  description, 
date  of  birth,  and  pedigree  of  the  dam  of  the  litter.  The 
head  of  a  hog  stamped  on  this  side  of  the  card  is  for  showing 
the  ear  marks  of  the  dam. 

Blank  cards  similar  to  these,  bearing  such  printing  as  the 
breeder  desires,  and  a  small  filing  case  for  containing  the 
cards,  can  be  purchased  cheaply  from  printing  houses.     Some 


INDEX    NO.  (        4  I 

A.  J.   LOVEJOY  &  SON.                        boars <  4  » 

sows i    5  ) 

Pigs  farrowed       May   1st,    1909 

SIRE 

Masterpiece  77000 

dam    Lee  Duchess    V      84975. 

•  c» 

NAM! 

NUMBER 

SOLO     TO 

PRICE 

B 
S 
S 

s 

Challenger 

Miss  Lee  Duchess 
«          »          »    2nd 
ti          H          ii    3rd 

90985 
100  568 
100  569 
100570 

Bill   Jones,    Lostant,    111 
Sam   Small,   Brookfield,   Wis 
ditto 
ii 

40.00 
35.00 
35.00 
35.00 

s 
s 

■           "          "   4  th 
"           ■          "    5th 

100571 
100572 

ti 
ii 

35.00 
35.00 

B 

Master  Duke 

101600 

L  Wilcox,   Dallas,    Texas 

50.00 

(  balance  of  litter 

26.00 

Total 

291.00 

^*Tf)         (a> 

DESCRIPTION 


Keat  head. large  white   face .nark  left  ear  few  white 
airs,   black  switch.  '  ' 


farrowed     April   1st,    1908. 


£;      Baron  Lee  of  Riverside 

70400 
CO 

> 


Baron  Lee  8th  48160 


Victor's  Duchess  58861J 


o 

«>  \  Combination  Duchess  5th) 


/  Combination  56028 


6337 


1  ) 


ctor's, — k  Duchess  2nd 
60776 


<*) 


Pig.  7 


27 


* 

i 

i  i 

Q 

i    «i 

a 

°    «t 



t  J 

e 

*      -Su 

5        O 

0 

i  H 

0 

e 

J 

0 

1- 

1 

a 

<  1 

q 

d 

§  ;><>  SWINE  BREEDING  29 

breeders  have  found  it  convenient  to  have  a  rubber  stamp 
made  for  stamping  the  head  of  a  hog  on  cards  or  other  records. 
Another  convenient  system  of  recording  produce  is  that 
illustrated  in  Fig.  X,  which  shows  a  leaf  from  a  record  book 
after  the  blanks  have  been  filled  in  with  data.  The  leaf  is 
divided  into  two  sections:  a  breeding  record  and  a  memoran- 
dum of  produce.  The  breeding  record  contains  the  breed, 
name,  age,  dam,  and  breeder  of  the  sow,  the  name  of  the 
service  boar,  the  date  of  service,  and  the  time  of  farrowing. 
The  memorandum  of  produce  contains  columns  in  which  are 
recorded  the  litter  number,  sex,  name,  registry  number, 
and  ear  marks  of  the  pigs  of  the  litter,  together  with  a  column 
for  remarks  concerning  the  disposal  of  each  animal. 

30.     Registration  of  Swine. —The  interests  of  the  various 
breeds  of   swine  are   fostered   by  record  associations,  which 
maintain  herd  books  for  the  registration  of  such  animals  as 
conform  to  the  standards  of  pedigree  required  by  these  asso- 
ciations.    If  a  breeder  has  an  animal  that  he  desires  to  have 
registered,  the  first  step  necessary  toward  this  end  is  to  file, 
with  the  secretary  of  the  association  of  the  breed  his  animal 
represents,  an  application  filled  out  on  one  of  the  standard 
entry   blanks   provided   by   the   secretary   for   this   purpose. 
In  Fig.  9  is  shown  an  application  for  the  registration  of  an 
animal  in  the  American  Berkshire  Association.     Associations 
representing  other  breeds  use  somewhat  similar  blanks.      In 
these   applications   the    name,    date   of  birth,    artificial   and 
natural  marks  of  the  animal,  the  name  and  registry  number 
of  the  sire  and  dam,  the  name  of  the  breeder  and  owner, 
and  various  other  points  of  information  must  be  'recorded. 
In  case  the  sire  of  the  animal  is  owned  by  another  breeder 
at  the  time  of  service,  a  certificate  of  service  signed  by  the 
owner  of  the  service  boar  must  accompany  the  application 
for  registration.     A  form  of  certificate  used  by  the  American 
Berkshire  Association  is  shown  in  Fig.   10,  the  blank  being 
filled  in  for  illustration.     This  is  merely  a  signed  statement 
that  a  certain  sow  has  been  served  by  a  certain  boar  owned 
by  the  breeder  signing  the  certificate. 


30 


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CERTIFICATE  OF  REGISTRY. 


OFFICE 


American   Berkshire   Association 

ORGANIZED   FEBRUARY  25,   1875. 

SPRINGFIELD,  ILLINOIS,  U.  S.  A. 

February  25th,    1911. 
This  is  to  Certify  That  upon  the  application  of 

A.    J.    Love joy  &  Son,   Rosooe,    ILL. 
there  has  been  admitted  to  registry  in   Volume  36 
of  the 

AMERICAN  BERKSHIRE  RECORD 


A  Berkshire     Sow 

known  as 

Farrowed 

Sire 

Dam 


Louisiana  Baroness  142727 

May  9th,  1910. 

Majestic  Baron  106000 

Baroness  Girl  5th  97868 

A.  J.  Lovejoy  &  Son,  Roscoe,  ILL. 


Bred  by 

was  sold  on  the  18th,   day  of    January  1911. 

Jos.  H.  Jasseau,  Alexandria,  La. 
by  A.  J.  Lovejoy  &  Son,  Roscoe,  ILL. 

Secretary 

Please  examine  this  Certificate  and  notify  the  Secretary  at 
once  of  any  errors  therein. 


Fig.  11 


32 


Fig.  12 


Fig.  13 


34 


Kame  and  No  Animal  Sold. 

Marks  Xi  di  , 

Pannck LhiSoJ  A  ,rX  rx  Aa  ^.  ><*■>. 


SdZd  *«  Ur.B.  ^rw^QXX, 

lLeS^2bj  JJccJLlU 

ry     S)  SJ^aaJffiL^J 

Date  shipm't  (\k.  a  n,  •  %  a)    13o  H 
Shipped  by  lA/-.  &  •  £>  ^nt  /O^? 

Served  fy    3  *-*-  S,  ^  Lfl 

Remark.*  ft  <yCd^  -V^>    £xL£Lzn 


FORM    C— AMERICAN    BERKSHIRE    ASSOCIATION    TABULA 
Bound  In  sets  of  100,    with  stub  for  memoranda. 

Post  Office  \\/Cr^.S^Cr<  1 

pedigree  qIVvn  <q^  A  A  *a  aj  u*  Vx  i  »    u 

Bred  oy(.L  ,H  .    hsmrg-JVCn a7  t^)(Tv\.i  . 
on  tAe-zijD day  ofl-i^J^-< 


k£ 


SIRE  OP  ANIMAL. 


.Bred  *»»  rc  JLk:  ft-&mv^A/  L        ft 


LSl 


OF  ANIMAL. 

/daJLALD^SU 
DAM  OP  ANIMAL, 


(If  a  female  and  bred  before  belne  sold,  fill  the  blanks-  on  line 
ii>.  .<^T^v<>rr?r2?V-rr>5*^5FTTday  of.S-^»*^V>sJt,/. 


(Sign    her 


<ju<r*4-X£s* 


243      §30 


>    PEDIGREE   BLANK. 

ilcd  on  receipt  of   $1.00.      Address    American    Berkshire  Association,   Springfield.   111. 


State   oV.xX-rwyv^Q->^a   ? Pp^  ^rn-4~^  jU-gj-vJ — LXa 19  •  O 

uUj    7\r^\OOOo5*   .g^^)  rrv^r-  r>rtr  of  T?frf  ftVWrt*  ^A^>    £> 19o(o 


Sold  to 


^r.V  ^VX^Ay 


roo-j 


Sire 


•^OluyrrrL) 


Dam 


Sire 


Dam 


iQQQO? 


3rvv^^nl^fAr^^^MftJ^t^-3^^■'<7  ■;, 

Dam     RLrlKnl     ^^, 

L  «  0  ><&</)  4- 

-f  \     fi>  »  Sire    lytv/r^AQQ.  t^TjUj  ?>  ?>  M-K-(a 

Dam  nQaAaAJja«a«u   3*]  M-^  ) 


Dam 


Sire 


X^rvw5^a(cb. 


Dam 


•Jo.rOufoitxJLnQ 

S^iPfc     Dam 


Sire 


r^jLLt^j^La-sL 


ih^LtA.g^fl^.qnsac, 


6*jJcaiaaL  5JLUl3= 


Sire 


Dam 


a/JL>3lA/U--^  A^.,%  ^  Dam     cLc^A^y  ^L^ArvUAs.0  1  — 

rt     t)  0  (L.     ft  Sire   [VrrX.KXyv^vJlrvx>5  ,   ^-  S  1   O  I 

r>rt^y,:A.Jr^^,0kiA 

The  above  potfgrei^G  <f>\-A-Q.\Ijft the  best  of  my  knowlgdgiand  belief 

(5^  a,)^fe!^M?k 


ISO*] 

a.ufe. 


§30  SWINE  BREED  INC.  35 

31.  If  the  secretary  finds  that  the  animal  is  eligible  for 
registration,  its  name  is  entered  in  the  herd  book  and  a  cer- 
tificate of  registry,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  11,  is  fur- 
nished to  the  breeder.  The  form  shown  in  the  illustration 
is  the  one  used  by  the  American  Berkshire  Association. 
In  Fig.  12  is  shown  the  forms  of  certificates  of  registration 
used  by  the  National  Poland-China  Record  Co.,  the  Ameri- 
can Tarn  worth  Swine  Record  Association,  the  American 
Hampshire  Swine  Record  Association,  the  Standard  Poland- 
China  Record  Association,  and  the  National  Duroc- Jersey 
Record  Association.  Fig.  13  shows  the  forms  of  certificates 
of  registration  used  by  the  American  Yorkshire  Club,  the 
American  Poland-China  Record,  the  American  Duroc-Jersey 
Swine  Breeders'  Association,  the  Standard  Chester  White 
Record  Association,  and  the  National  Mule-Foot  Hog  Record 
Association.  Such  certificates  contain  certain  information 
relating  to  the  animal  and  establish  the  fact  that  the  animal 
has  been  admitted  to  registry. 

32.  Recording  of  Pedigrees. — After  an  animal  has  been 
registered,  or  possibly  before,  in  case  it  has  been  sold  before 
being  admitted  to  registry,  the  breeder  should  record  its 
pedigree  on  some  form  of  blank  made  for  this  purpose.  The 
tabulated  pedigree  blank  of  the  American  Berkshire  Asso- 
ciation, filled  in  with  a  complete  pedigree,  is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 
Other  associations,  of  course,  have  similar  blanks.  The  form 
of  blank  shown  in  the  figure  has  a  stub  for'memoranda,  and 
space  for  tracing  the  pedigree  to  the  fourth  generation.  It 
has,  also,  blank  spaces  for  the  signatures  of  both  the  breeder 
and  the  owner  of  the  service  sire.  When  a  pure-bred  animal 
is  sold,  such  a  pedigree  should  always  be  furnished  to  the 
purchaser. 

33.  Recording  of  Lease  of  Boar  for  Service. — If  a  reg- 
istered boar  is  leased  for  service  to  another  breeder,  some 
form  of  notification  must  be  filed  with  the  secretary  of  the 
record  association.  A  standard  form  of  lease  of  service 
used  by  the  American  Berkshire  Association  is  shown  in 
Fig.  15.     This  is  merely  a  certification  by  the  owner  of  the 


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36 


87 


ABSTRACT  OF  OWNERSHIP. 


OFFICE 


American   Berkshire   Association 

ORGANIZED   FEBRUARY  26,   1675. 

SPRINGFIELD,  ILLINOIS,  U.  S.  A. 

February   25th,    1911. 

This  is  to  Certify  That  upon  the  application  of 

A.    J.    love  joy  &   Son,    Roscoe,    ILL. 

the  change  in  ownership  noted  below  has  been  filed 
for  publication  in  the  forthcoming  volume  of  the 

AMERICAN  BERKSHIRE  RECORD 

A  Berkshire     Boar 

known  as         Masterpiece   77000 

and  recorded  in  Volume  23  as  bred  by 

G.   W     Berry,    Berryton,   Kansas. 
was  sold  on  the  2d,  day  of       March  1906. 

W.    S.    Oorsa,   White  Hall,    ILL. 

A.    J._Lovejoy  &  Son,   Roscoe,    ILL. 


Secretary 

Please  examine  this  .Abstract  of  Ownership  and  notify  the 
Secretary  at  once  of  an  y  errors  therein. 


Fig.  17  38 


§  30  SWINE  BREEDING  39 

boar  that  the  latter  has  been  leased  to  a  certain  breeder 
for  a  specified  period  of  time.  Blanks  for  lease  of  service 
can  be  obtained  from  the  secretaries  of  the  various  record 
associations. 

34.  Recording  of  Transfer  of  Ownership. — When  a  reg- 
istered animal  is  sold,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  change  in 
ownership  recorded  by  the  secretary  of  the  record  association. 
To  have  this  done,  the  former  owner  must  file  with  the  sec- 
retary a  standard  blank  provided  for  this  purpose,  completely 
filled  out  as  required.  A  standard  form  of  request  for  transfer 
of  ownership  that  is  used  by  the  American  Berkshire  Asso- 
ciation is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  This  simply  gives  the  names 
and  addresses  of  the  former  and  the  present  owner,  the  date 
of  transfer,  and  the  data  concerning  the  animal. 

Upon  receipt  of  this  request  for  transfer  of  ownership,  the 
secretary  will  issue  to  the  present  owner  an  abstract  of  owner- 
ship, one  of  which,  with  blanks  filled  in  for  illustration,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  17.  This  abstract  merely  contains  notice  that 
the  change  in  ownership  has  been  recorded  as  requested, 
with  such  data  concerning  the  animal  as  was  contained  in 
the  request. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


TYPES    OF    SHEEP 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  From  the  earliest  recorded  time  sheep  have  been 
raised  for  the  production  of  food  and  clothing  for  man.  The 
Scriptures  contain  numerous  references  to  sheep  and  to  sheep 
husbandry,  and  other  early  writings  indicate  that  the  raising 
of  sheep  was  one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the 
ancients.  As  might  be  expected,  the  sheep  of  early  times 
were  quite  different  from  those  of  the  present  time,  and  the 
early  methods  of  sheep  husbandry  were  dissimilar  to  those 
now  in  vogue  in  all  sheep-raising  cotmtries,  save  in  isolated 
sections  of  Asia,  where  a  few  tribes  of  people  still  practice 
the  primitive  methods. 

2.  Modern  types  and  breeds  of  sheep  differ  from  the 
earlier  forms  described  in  the  Scriptures  and  elsewhere,  prin- 
cipally in  the  degree  of  development  of  certain  characters. 
The  modifications  have  been  brought  about  by  changes  in 
the  methods  of  care  and  management,  in  geographical 
environment,  and  in  the  ptirposes  for  which  the  sheep  were 
raised.  From  the  sheep  that  centuries  ago  were  raised  in  the 
southern  part  of  Europe,  especially  in  the  hills  of  Spain,  and 
fostered  by  the  early  Romans,  there  has  been  developed  a  type 
of  sheep  known  as  the  wool  type.  The  animals  of  this  type 
are  noted  for  the  production  of  a  large  quantity  and  a  fine 
quality  of  wool,  from  which  the  finest  woolen  cloth  is  made 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK   COMPANY.        ENTERED   AT    STATIONERS'    HALL,    LONDON 

8  31 


TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


§31 


In  the  British  Isles,  sheep  raising  has  been  carried  on  for 
several  centuries,  but  in  this  region  the  chief  aim  of  the 
breeder  has  been  the  production  of  a  fine  quality  of  mutton, 
wool  production  being  a  secondary  consideration.  The  type 
of  sheep  that  has  been  developed  under  these  conditions  is 
known  as  the  mutton  type.  Sheep  of  this  type  do  not  possess 
the  fine,  dense  fleeces  characteristic  of  sheep  of  the  wool  type, 
but  they  excel  the  latter  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
mutton  they  produce. 

3.  Sheep  of  the  wool  type  have  been  the  pioneer  sheep 
of  all  countries,  other  than  European  countries,  in  which 
sheep  raising  has  become  an  important  industry  in  modern 
times;  namely,  North  America,  Australia,  Xew  Zealand,  South 


Fig.  1 

Africa,  and  South  America.  Wool-type  sheep  were  exten- 
sively used  in  developing  the  sheep  industry  in  these  countries 
for  the  reasons  that  sheep  of  this  type  are  very  active,  have 
a  tendency  to  remain  in  flocks  when  in  open  country,  are  able 
to  subsist  on  scant  herbage,  and  have  the  ability  to  make 
long  journeys  on  a  small  supply  of  water.  Furthermore,  the 
product,  wool,  is  always  in  demand,  and,  as  it  is  not  perish- 
able, can  be  shipped  long  distances.  On  the  other  hand, 
mutton,  the  chief  product  of  the  mutton  type  of  sheep,  is  not 
in  such  steady  demand,  and,  being  perishable,  is  less  easily 
shipped.  However,  with  the  advent  of  refrigerator  cars 
and  ships,  and  improved  transportation  facilities,  the  mutton 
type  is  increasing  in  popularity  in  the  countries  mentioned. 


§31 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


4.  In  order  that  the  description  of  the  types  and  breeds 
of  sheep  may  be  more  intelligible,  the  position  of  the  different 
parts  of  a  sheep  is  indicated  on  the  animals  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
The  names  of  the  different  parts  are  as  follows:  a,  head; 
b,  neck;  c,  shoulder;  d,  brisket;  c,  top  of  shoulder,  or  withers; 
f,  fore  leg;  g,  chest;  h,  back;  i,  loin;  /,  hip;  k,  rump;  /,  leg  of 
mutton;  m,  twist;  u,  hind  leg;  o,  flank;  p,  belly;  q,  fore  flank; 
>',  ribs,  or  sides;  and  s,  tail,  or  dock. 


WOOL    TYPE 

5.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  general 
appearance  of  a  sheep  of  the  wool  type  is  that  of  narrowness. 
This  characteristic  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  which  shows  views 
of  two  sheep  of  the  wool  type.  A  typical  wool-type  animal 
is  angular  in  shape ;  the  skin  lies  in  folds  over  the  body,  especi- 
ally about  the  neck;  and  the  head  presents  a  strong  and 
rather  coarse  appearance,  particularly  in  the  case  of  a  ram 


Fig.  2 

that  shows  great  vitality.  The  neck  is  long,  rather  thin,  and 
often  droops  where  it  joins  the  body;  the  shoulders  are  close 
together,  sharp,  and  prominent  on  top;  the  brisket  is  narrow; 
the  fore  legs  are  close  together,  with  the  fore  feet  often  wider 
apart  than  the  knees;  and  the  fore  flanks  are  low  but  thin. 
The  ribs  slope  downwards  sharply  from  the  backbone,  which 
appears  to  be  too  long  for  the  length  of  the  sheep ;  the  back 
is  narrow;  the  loin  is  thin  and  narrow;  the  rump  is  short  and 


TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


§  3 1 


inclined  to  droop  abruptly  from  the  hips,  which  are  also 
narrow;  the  thighs  are  thin  and  separated  well  up  toward 
the  tail,  or  dock;  the  flanks  are  thin;  the  bottom  line  is 
generally  level;  and  the  legs  have  a  tendency  to  be  long. 

Some  breeds  of  the  wool  type  of  sheep  have  been  developed 
by  feeding,  selection,  and  breeding  until  they  produce  a  fair 
quantity  and  quality  of  mutton  as  well  as  excellent  fleeces 
of  wool. 


MUTTON   TYPE 

6.     The  mutton  type  of  sheep,  three  animals  of  which  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  3,  shows  a  marked  contrast  to  the  angular, 


narrow  form  and  folded  skin  of  the  wool  type.  In  form,  a 
sheep  of  the  mutton  type  is  smooth,  round,  compact,  sym- 
metrical, and  free  from  angularities,  and  the  flesh  is  evenly 


§31      TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP       5 

distributed  over  the  carcass.  The  head  is  broad  between  the 
eyes,  which  are  large  and  prominent;  the  neck  is  short  and 
thick;  the  brisket  is  broad  and  full;  the  fore  legs  are  short, 
straight,  and  set  squarely  under  the  body;  the  fore  flanks  are 
well  filled  so  that  there  is  but  a  slight  depression  just  back 
of  the  shoulders,  which  are  evenly  and  deeply  covered  with 
flesh  and  are  smooth  and  round  on  top.  The  ribs  are  well 
covered  with  flesh  and  spring  boldly  out  from  the  backbone, 
making  the  back  broad  and  level  and  the  body  cylindrical. 
The  loin  is  broad  and  thickly  covered  with  flesh;  the  flanks 
are  let  well  down  but  are  thick,  giving  a  straight  bottom  line 
that  is  parallel  with  the  top  line.  The  hindquarters  are 
broad ;  the  rump  is  long  and  level ;  and  the  twist  extends  well 
down  to  the  hocks.  The  legs  stand  well  apart ;  and  the  thighs, 
both  on  the  outside  and  between  the  legs,  are  well  covered 
with  flesh,  thus  making  a  good  leg  of  mutton. 

In  general,  the  body  of  the  mutton  type  of  sheep  is  longer 
than  that  of  the  wool  type  of  sheep ;  this  condition  is  due  more 
to  the  long,  level  rump  than  to  the  length  of  the  back.  Sheep 
of  the  mutton  type  take  on  flesh  quickly,  mature  early,  are 
of  a  quiet  disposition,  and  are  shorter  lived  than  those  of  the 
wool  type.  They  thrive  best  on  well-cultivated  farms  where 
feed  and  water  are  provided  for  them. 

Sheep  of  breeds  of  the  mutton  type  produce  heavy  fleeces, 
but  these  are  not  of  as  fine  a  quality  as  those  produced  by 
sheep  of  the  wool  type. 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


BREEDS   OF   SHEEP 

7.  Although  more  than  sixty  distinct  breeds  of  sheep  are 
known  to  exist,  less  than  one-fourth  of  these  are  of  importance 
in  America,  and  in  the  following  discussion  of  the  breeds  of 
sheep,  only  such  breeds  as  are  important  in  this  country  will 
be  described.  Three  of  the  important  breeds  are  of  the  wool 
type,  and  these,  with  respect  to  wool  production,  are  known 
-wool  breeds;  the  others  are  of  the  mutton  type,  which, 
with  respect  to  wool  production,  are  known  as  medium-wool 
breeds  and  coarse-wool  breeds. 

The  fine-wool  breeds  are  the  American  Merino,  the  Delaine 
Merino,  and  the  Rambouillet.  The  medium-wool  breeds  are 
the  Southdown,  the  Shropshire,  the  Oxford  Down,  the 
Hampshire,  the  Dorset,  the  Cheviot,  and  the  Suffolk.  The 
coarse-wool  breeds  are  the  Lincoln,  the  Leicester,  and  the 
Cotswold. 


FIXE-WOOL    BREEDS 


AMERICAN     MERINO 

8.  General  Description. — In  general  appearance,  a  typical 
animal  of  the  American  Merino  breed  of  sheep  more  nearly 
represents  the  ideal  wool  type  than  does  an  individual  of 
other  breed  in  America.  The  American  Merino  is  narrow 
and  angular  in  conformation ;  has  a  rather  long  neck  and  long 
legs;  and  has  many  distinct  folds  in  its  skin,  except  on  the 
back. 

The  head  of  the  American  Merino  is  small  as  compared  with 
the  heads  of  animals  of  other  breeds,  and  usually  the  lips, 
nostrils,  legs,  and  part  of  the  face  are  covered  with  fine,  white, 
silky*  hair.  The  ears  are  small,  and,  as  a  rule,  are  covered, 
like  the  parts  just  mentioned,  with  fine,  white  hair,  although 
occasionally  tan-colored  spots  of  hair  are  found  on  one  or 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

more  of  such  parts.  The  head  of  the  ewe  is  hornless,  but  the 
rams  carry  heavy,  spiral  horns,  which  are  marked  with 
transverse  wrinkles.  The  neck  is  heavily  covered  with 
wrinkles,  the  shoulders  are  sloping,  and  the  chest  is  narrow 
but  deep.  The  back  and  loins  are  narrow  and  scantily 
covered  with  flesh,  and  the  rump  is  inclined  to  be  short  and 
steep.     The  hind  legs  are  thin  and  make  a  poor  leg  of  mutton. 

A  ram  of  the  American  Merino  breed  is  shown  in  Fig.  4- 
and  a  ewe  in  Fig.  5.* 

In  size,  American  Merinos  vary  greatly,  the  variation 
being  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  different  breeders  have 
developed  strains  of  the  breed  according  to  their  individual 
ideas  of  the  most  desirable  size.  It  is  generally  accepted, 
however,  that  mature  ewes  should  weigh  about  100  pounds 
and  mature  rams  about  150  pounds. 

9.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — No  other  breed  of  sheep  in 
America  is  as  able  to  adapt  itself  to  such  a  wide  range  of 
conditions  as  the  American  Merino.  Sheep  of  this  breed 
readily  become  adapted  to  almost  any  kind  of  feed,  and  are 
better  suited  than  those  of  any  other  breed  to  rough  con- 
ditions, scarce  feed,  and  poor  treatment.  They  have  a 
natural  tendency  to  stay  in  large  flocks,  and  do  better  than 
any  other  breed  when  large  numbers  are  kept  together; 
consequently,  they  are  well  suited  for  range  conditions,  under 
which  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  sheep  in  large  flocks. 

Maturity. — American  Merino  sheep  do  not  reach  maturity 
as  early  as  sheep  of  the  mutton  breeds,  and  for  this  reason 
they  are  said  to  be  inferior  in  maturing  qualities. 

Breeding  Qualities. — American  Merino  sheep  are  somewhat 
inferior  to  those  of  other  breeds  in  breeding  qualities,  as 
the  ewes  are  not  very  prolific,  and  are  not  good  dams;  how- 
ever, they  breed  to  an  advanced  age.  Animals  of  this  breed 
are  desirable  for  crossing  with  grade  sheep  if  an  increase  in 
weight  and  fineness  of  wool  over  that  of  the  grade  sheep  is 
desired.     When    American    Merinos   are   crossed    with   sheep 

*The  photographs  from  which  Figs.  5,  6,  7.  23,  and  2S  were  made 
were  furnished  by  The  American  Sheep  Breeder. 


*  :;i      TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP        9 

of  the  mutton  type,  it  is  customary  to  use  a  ram  of  the  mutton 
type  on  American  Merino  ewes.  The  lambs  from  this  crossing 
produce  a  good  grade  of  mutton  and  of  wool.  If  an  American 
Merino  ram  is  crossed  on  ewes  of  the  mutton  type,  the  lambs 
usually  produce  a  larger  quantity  and  a  better  quality  of 
wool,  but  are  smaller  than  the  offspring  of  the  first-mentioned 
cross  and  make  inferior  mutton. 

Mullen  Production. — The  American  Merino  is  an  inferior 
animal  for  mutton  production,  because  it  does  not  make  a 
rapid  growth,  lay  on  flesh  rapidly,  or  produce  a  first-class 
carcass.  The  meat  is  lacking  in  quality,  and  there  is  always 
much  waste  in  dressing,  due  to  the  extensive  folds  of  the  skin, 
the  long  legs,  and  the  large  proportion  of  bone  to  flesh. 

Wool  Production. — In  wool  production,  sheep  of  the 
American  Merino  breed  surpass  those  of  all  other  breeds  in 
America.  Sheep  of  no  other  breed  produce  as  fine  or  as 
heavy  fleeces.  For  the  reason  that  fleeces  of  the  American 
Merino  sheep  vary  greatly  in  weight,  according  to  the  density 
and  fineness  of  the  wool  and  the  quantity  of  yolk — that  is,  the 
oil  or  grease  on  the  wool — it  is  difficult  to  give  an  average 
weight  for  a  fleece.  However,  rams  should  produce  from 
about  15  to  20  pounds  of  unwashed  wool,  and  ewes  should 
produce  from  about  12  to  15  pounds.  These  weights  are  fre- 
quently exceeded,  and  in  a  few  cases  more  than  doubled. 
There  are  numerous  records  of  rams  whose  fleeces  weighed 
from  25  to  35  pounds,  and  of  ewes  whose  fleeces  weighed 
from  15  to  25  pounds.  The  fleece  of  a  2-year-old  American 
Merino  ram,  bred  in  Vermont,  weighed  44  pounds  and 
3  ounces,  the  greatest  yield  on  record  for  a  2-year-old.  The 
fleece  of  a  ewe,  also  bred  in  Vermont,  weighed  32  pounds  and 
8  ounces.  The  heaviest  fleece  ever  recorded  was  that  shorn 
at  the  state  shearing  in  Michigan  in  1884,  from  a  ram  named 
Buckeye;  this  fleece  weighed  44  pounds  and  8  ounces. 


10  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  §  31 


DELAINE     MERINO 

10.  General  Description. — Sheep  of  the  Delaine  Merino 
breed  differ  from  American  Merino  sheep  in  having  a  larger 
and  better  mutton  carcass,  fewer  wrinkles  and  folds  on  the 
body,  and  longer  wool  that  contains  less  yolk.  The  minimum 
weight  for  ewes  of  the  various  families  of  Delaine  Merinos 
varies  from  100  to  130  pounds,  and  the  minimum  weight  for 
the  rams,  from  150  to  ISO  pounds.  A  ram  of  this  breed  is 
shown  in  Fig.  6  and  a  ewe  in  Fig.  7. 

11.  Development. — The  Delaine  Merino  breed  is  really  a 
branch  of  the  American  Merino  breed,  and  has  been  developed 
principally  in  the  section  including  the  western  part  of  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Panhandle  district  of  West  Virginia,  and  a 
few  counties  in  the  eastern  part  of  Ohio.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century  the  demand  for  mutton  increased,  and 
this  encouraged  a  few  breeders  of  the  American  Merino  to 
attempt  the  development  of  a  breed  of  sheep  that  would  pro- 
duce fair  mutton  carcasses  as  well  as  fine  fleeces  of  wool.  To 
accomplish  this  they  selected  as  their  breeding  stock  animals 
of  the  American  Merino  breed  that  were  of  large  size,  had 
few  wrinkles,  were  broad  and  deep  of  chest,  and  possessed 
plenty  of  digestive  capacity.  These  breeders  found  that 
with  the  increase  in  size  and  mutton  qualities  of  their  sheep 
the}*  also  secured  longer  wool  that  had  less  yolk  but  still 
retained  much  of  the  fineness  of  that  of  the  old  type  of  the 
wrinkly  American  Merino.  The  breed  thus  developed  is 
known  as  the  Delaine  Merino. 

12.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — The  Delaine  Merino,  like  the 
..rican  Merino,  can  adapt  itself  to  a  wide  range  of  con- 
ditions.    The  breed  is  not,  however,  so  well  adapted  to  rough 
pasture  or  to  adverse  conditions  as  the  American  Merino. 

Maturity. — Although  the  Delaine  Merino  breed  ranks  first 
among  the  fine-wool  breeds  in  the  length  of  time  required  for 
maturity,  it  is,  nevertheless,  comparatively  poor  in  this 
respect,  as  compared  with  the  medium-wool  and  coarse-wool 
breeds. 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  7 


12       TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

Breeding  Qualities. — The  Delaine  Merino  is  distinctly  better 
in  breeding  qualities  than  the  American  Merino,  because 
Delaine  Merino  breeders  have  paid  particular  attention  to  the 
breeding  qualities  of  their  sheep.  The  ewes  are  regular  and 
prolific  breeders,  are  good  dams,  and  produce  an  abundant 
supply  of  milk. 

Delaine  Merino  rams  are  extensively  used  for  cross-breeding 
with  American  Merinos  when  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  large 
animal  with  longer  wool  than  the  American  Merino,  and  with 
grade  ewes  when  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  density,  fineness, 
and  length  of  the  wool. 

Mutton  Production. — The  Delaine  Merino  is  superior  to  the 
American  Merino  for  mutton  production,  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  the  breeders  of  Delaine  Merinos  have,  from  the  time 
of  the  foundation  of  the  breed,  emphasized  the  importance 
of  mutton  production.  Yearlings  often  weigh  from  SO  to 
90  pounds  and  dress  with  less  offal  than  do  the  American 
Merinos. 

Wool  Production. — The  Delaine  Merino  is  not,  as  a  rule, 
equal  to  the  American  Merino  in  wool  production.  It  does 
not  have  as  heavy  or  as  fine  a  fleece  as  the  American  Merino, 
but  the  fiber  is  longer,  which  makes  the  wool  especially 
desirable  in  the  market. 


RAMBOUILI.ET 

13.  General  Description. — In  general  appearance,  a  typical 
animal  of  the  Rambouillet  breed  of  sheep  bears  some  resem- 
blance to  the  American  Merino,  but  the  Rambouillet  is  larger 
and  has  more  of  a  mutton  carcass.  The  outline  of  the  body 
is  rounder  and  more  plump;  the  back  is  broader;  the  ribs  are 
better  arched;  and  there  is  a  better  development  of  loin, 
hindquarters,  and  leg  of  mutton,  and  a  deeper  fleshing  all 
over  the  body  than  in  the  American  Merino.  The  body  is 
generally  smooth  and  free  from  wrinkles,  although  wrinkles 
are  found  in  the  flanks,  on  the  neck,  and  around  the  tail. 
The  head  is  rather  large,  broad  between  the  eyes,  and  the 
face,  nose,  and  ears  are  covered  with  fine,  white,  silky  hair. 


Fig.  8 


13 


Fir,.  9 


14  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  s<  31 

The  females  are  hornless,  but  the  rams  usually  bear  large, 
spirally  curved  horns;  occasionally,  polled  rams  are  found. 
The  skin  should  be  bright  pink  in  color. 

A  Rambouillet  ram  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  8  and  a  ewe  in 
Fig.  9. 

In  size,  the  Rambouillet  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
American  Merino.  Mature  rams  usually  weigh  from  175  to 
250  pounds,  and  occasionally  one  will  weigh  300  pounds. 
Mature  ewes  weigh  from  about  110  to  150  pounds,  and 
mature  wethers  from  about  150  to  200  pounds. 

14.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — The  Rambouillet,  like  the 
American  Merino,  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions. 
It  is  hardy,  able  to  withstand  extremes  of  weather,  and  well 
adapted  to  range  conditions,  but,  on  account  of  its  large  size, 
it  is  not  so  well  adapted  as  the  American  Merino  to  scant 
pastures.  Animals  of  the  Rambouillet  breed,  are  good 
grazers  and  are  better  adapted  than  those  of  any  other  breed, 
except  the  American  Merino,  to  obtain  a  living  from  grass 
and  coarse  forage. 

Maturity. — The  Rambouillet,  like  the  animals  of  the  other 
fine-wool  breeds,  does  not  mature  as  early  as  animals  of  the 
mutton  breeds.  It  is  better  in  this  respect,  however,  than 
the  American  Merino  but  not  so  good  as  the  Delaine  Merino. 

Breeding  Qualities. — The  Rambouillet  is  a  regular  breeder 
and  breeds  to  an  old  age,  often  producing  twins.  The  ewes 
are  good  dams  and  supply  an  abundance  of  milk. 

On  account  of  their  strong  constitutions,  good  mutton 
qualities,  and  heavy  fleeces,  Rambouillet  sheep  are  well 
adapted  for  cross-breeding  with  the  common  sheep  of  the 
range,  and  there  is  a  strong  demand  for  the  rams  for  this 
purpose. 

Mutton  Production. — The  Rambouillet  is  not  one  of  the 
best  breeds  of  sheep  for  mutton  production,  but  it  is  better 
in  this  respect  than  the  American  Merino,  although  not  so 
good  as  the  Delaine  Merino.  The  quality  of  the  meat  is 
fairly  good,  but  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  mutton  breeds  on 
account  of  being  somewhat  coarser  and  not  containing  so 


8  31 


TYPES  AND   BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


15 


good  a  mixture  of  fat  and  lean,  and  there  is  not  so  deep  a 
covering  of  flesh  over  the  body  as  in  the  mutton  breeds. 
There  is  always  a  comparatively  large  waste  in  dressing  a 
Rambouillet  sheep,  due  to  the  long  neck  and  legs  and  the 
heavy  pelt. 

Wool  Production. — The  Rambouillet  is  one  of  the  best 
breeds  for  wool  production.  The  wool  covers  the  body 
evenly,  is  of  good  length  on  the  belly,  and  grows  well  down 


on  the  nose  and  legs.  A  striking  example  of  how  completely 
the  head  of  a  Rambouillet  is  covered  with  wool  is  shown  in 
Fig.  10.  As  a  rule,  from  12  to  24  pounds  of  wool  are  shorn 
annually  from  rams  and  from  6  to  10  pounds  from  ewes; 
these  weights  are  frequently  exceeded. 

The  fiber  of  a  Rambouillet  fleece  is  fine,  has  a  fine  crimp, 
is  from  3  to  5  and  sometimes  0i  inches  in  length,  and 
is  usually  white,  but  sometimes  of  a  buff  color.  The 
fleece   is   fairly  dense   and   compact,    and   does   not   contain 


16       TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

so  much  yolk  as  that  of  the  American  Merino;  there  is 
never  enough  to  form  a  crust  on  the  surface,  as  is  the 
case    with     some     strains    of    the    Delaine     Merino    breed. 


MEDIUM-WOOL    BREEDS 


SOUTHDOWN 

15.  General  Description. — The  Southdown  breed  of  sheep 
probably  more  nearly  represents  the  ideal  mutton  type  than 
does  any  other  breed.  In  general  appearance,  the  typical 
Southdown  presents  a  compact,  broad,  deep,  and  smooth  body 
evenly  covered  with  flesh.  The  head  is  small  and  hornless  in 
the  case  of  both  rams  and  ewes,  the  eyes  are  full  and  bright, 
the  ears  and  the  space  on  the  head  between  the  ears  are  well 
covered  with  wool,  and  the  color  of  the  face  and  ears  is  a 
uniform  tint  of  brown  or  gray.  The  neck  is  straight,  and  is 
thin  toward  the  head  but  broadens  out  toward  the  body  so 
as  to  join  smoothly  with  the  broad,  thick,  deep,  evenly 
covered  shoulders.  The  breast  is  wide  and  deep,  projecting 
forwards  between  the  fore  legs,  making  a  large,  full  brisket  and 
indicating  a  strong  constitution  and  a  thrifty  condition.  The 
fore  legs  are  straight  from  breast  to  feet  and  are  set  squarely 
under  the  body.  The  ribs  are  heavily  covered  with  flesh  and 
spring  cut  horizontally  from  the  backbone,  making  a  broad, 
flat  back,  and  a  body  that  is  almost  round.  The  back  is 
nearly  level,  and  is  straight  from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail; 
the  loin  is  broad,  thick,  and  flat.  The  rump  is  long  and 
broad  and  has  the  same  width  as  the  rest  of  the  body.  The 
thighs  are  full  on  both  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  legs,  and 
the  twist  is  low  and  full.  The  lower  line  of  the  body  is  as 
straight  as  the  top  line  and  parallel  with  it.  The  belly  is 
well  covered  with  wool,  as  are  also  the  legs  as  far  down  as 
the  knees  and  hocks.  The  legs,  below  the  knees  and  hocks, 
should  be  of  the  same  color  as  the  face  and  ears. 

A  Southdown  ram  is  shown  in  Fig.  11  and  a  ewe  in 
Fk*.  12. 


Fig.  11 


Pig    i 


is       TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

The  Southdown  is  the  smallest  of  the  medium-wool  breeds, 
and  is  often  criticised  on  account  of  its  lack  of  size.  How- 
ever, the  carcass  of  a  Southdown  is  so  compact  that  mature 
rams  of  the  breed  will  weigh,  on  an  average,  about  175  pounds 
and  mature  ewes  about  135  pounds. 

16.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — The  Southdown  breed  is 
best  adapted  to  the  conditions  that  exist  on  its  native  downs 
in  England,  where  the  country  is  hilly,  the  climate  dry,  and 
the  pasturage  short,  fine,  and  nutritious.  It  thrives  on  the 
rolling,  well-drained  farm  lands  of  the  middle  portion  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada,  and  has  also  proved  to  be  one 
of  the  best  breeds  to  raise  in  the  South. 

Maturity. — The  Southdown  matures  early  and  makes  rapid 
gains  for  the  quantity  of  feed  consumed.  After  attaining  a 
marketable  size,  a  sheep  of  this  breed  remains  in  prime  condi- 
tion and  may  be  marketed  at  any  suitable  time  thereafter. 

Breeding  Qualities. — The  breeding  qualities  of  Southdown 
sheep  are  only  medium,  although  the  ewes  are  good  dams 
and  have  a  fair  flow  of  milk.  Sheep  of  the  Southdown  breed 
have  been  used  for  the  improvement  of  several  breeds  of  sheep, 
especially  the  Shropshire,  Oxford  Down,  and  Hampshire. 
They  improve  the  feeding  and  maturing  qualities  of  any  breed 
with  which  they  are  crossed. 

Mutton  Production. — For  the  production  of  mutton,  the 
Southdown  breed  is  one  of  the  best.  Animals  of  this  breed 
are  good  feeders,  make  good  gains  for  the  feed  consumed, 
mature  quickly,  and  can  be  made  ready  for  the  market  at 
almost  any  age.  The  meat  is  of  the  finest  quality  and  the 
animals  dress  with  a  small  percentage  of  bone  and  offal. 

Wool  Production. — In  wool  production,  the  Southdown 
does  not  rank  high,  although  the  wool  is  finer  in  quality  than 
that  of  sheep  of  any  other  breed  of  the  mutton  type.  The 
fleece  is  dense  and  compact  but  the  staple  is  too  short  and 
contains  too  little  yolk  for  the  yields  to  be  heavy.  South- 
down breeders,  however,  are  endeavoring  to  develop  sheep 
that  will  produce  heavier  fleeces  with  longer  staple.  The 
weight  of  a  Southdown  fleece  varies  from  about  4  to  S  pounds. 


$31      TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP       1<) 


SHROPSHIRE 

17.  General  Description.  The  Shropshire  breed  of  sheep 
is  a  medium-wool  breed  that  is  popular  with  sheep  raisers. 
The  sheep  of  this  breed  are  larger  and  heavier  than  those  of 
the  Southdown  breed,  which  they  resemble  in  general  con- 
formation, although  they  are  not  so  compact  as  the  South- 
downs.  Both  the  ram  and  the  ewe  are  hornless,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  best  specimens  of  the  breed,  the  head,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  part  of  the  nose,  is  covered  with  a  dense 
cap  of  wool.  The  nose  of  the  ram  is  slightly  Roman,  and 
the  nostrils  are  strong  and  large;  the  head  of  the  ewe  is  finer 
than  that  of  the  ram  and  the  nose  is  straight.  The  ears  of 
a  Shropshire  sheep  are  small,  short,  pointed,  moderately 
thick,  wide  apart,  and  covered  with  short,  fine  wool.  The 
head  joins  neatly  to  the  well-muscled  neck,  and  the  neck 
blends  smoothly  with  the  broad,  smooth,  well-laid  shoulders, 
which  are  heavily  covered  with  flesh.  The  chest  is  deep, 
wide,  and  low,  and  the  brisket  is  full,  prominent,  and  carried 
well  forwards  between  the  fore  legs.  The  body  is  broad, 
deep,  and  round,  and  the  ribs  are  long,  well  arched,  and 
thickly  covered  with  flesh.  The  back  and  loins  are  strong, 
level,  broad,  and  evenly  covered  with  thick,  firm  flesh.  The 
width  of  the  body  is  the  same  from  the  shoulders  to  the  end 
of  the  rump.  The  rump  is  long,  wide,  broad,  and  level  on 
top,  although  it  is  inclined  to  droop  from  the  hips.  The 
thighs,  however,  are  unusually  thick,  and  the  twist  is  low 
down,  thus  forming  an  excellent  leg  of  mutton.  The  flanks 
are  low  down  and  thick;  when  compared  with  the  deep 
body,  the  legs  are  short  and  are  covered  with  wool  down 
to  the  hoofs.  The  legs,  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  and 
that  part  of  the  face  not  covered  with  wool  are  of  a  dark 
brown  color. 

The  general  appearance  of  a  Shropshire  ram  is  shown  in 
Fig.  13  and  that  of  a  ewe  in  Fig.  14. 

In  size,  the  Shropshire  is  about  an  average  of  the  sheep  of 
the  medium-wool  breeds.  Mature  rams  should  weigh  about 
225  pounds  and  mature  ewes  from  L50  to  160  pounds. 


-» 


hftiftr* 


Fig.  13 


§31      TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP       21 

18.  Qualities.  Adaptability. — The  Shropshire  breed  is 
especially  adapted  to  gently  rolling  land  where  pastures  are 
good  and  the  climate  is  dry  and  cool.  The  breed  is  decidedly 
suited  to  the  corn-belt  region  of  America,  where  it  is  exceed- 
ingly popular,  although  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  the  range 
as  are  the  fine-wool  breeds. 

Maturity. — The  Shropshire  breed  ranks  high  for  early 
maturity,  as  the  lambs  can  be  made  to  weigh  40  pounds  in 
4  months  and  100  pounds  in  12  months.  This  quick-maturing 
quality  has  made  Shropshire  sheep  popular  with  feeders. 

Breeding  Qualities. — Shropshire  sheep  are  noted  for  their 
breeding  qualities,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ewes  are  good 
dams  and  are  regular  breeders,  often  giving  birth  to  and 
raising  twins  or  triplets.  About  1.50  lambs,  on  an  average, 
are  dropped  for  every  100  ewes  bred. 

The  crosses  from  Shropshire  rams  and  native,  or  Merino, 
ewes  are  among  the  most  common  and  acceptable  mutton 
sheep  found  in  American  livestock  markets.  The  offspring 
of  a  Shropshire  ram  and  a  ewe  of  a  fine-wool  breed  is  much 
better  in  mutton  quality  than  the  dam,  and  the  offspring  of  a 
Shropshire  ram  and  a  long-wool  grade  ewe  is  better  in  both 
mutton  and  wool  qualities  than  the  dam. 

Mutton  Production. — The  Shropshire  breed  ranks  next  to 
the  Southdown  in  the  quality  of  mutton  produced;  in  fact, 
the  quality  of  Shropshire  mutton  is  claimed  by  some  to  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  Southdown.  Shropshires  fatten  readily 
and  there  is  comparatively  little  offal  in  dressing. 

Wool  Production. — The  wool  of  Shropshire  sheep  is  of 
superior  fineness  and  crimp  for  a  medium-wool  breed,  is 
usually  about  3h  inches  in  length,  and  often  contains  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  yolk.  The  fleeces  from  a  flock  of  Shrop- 
shire sheep  should  average  about  7  or  S  pounds  in  weight. 


OXFORD     DOWN 

19.  General  Description. — Sheep  of  the  Oxford  Down 
breed  are  the  largest  of  the  animals  of  the  medium-wool 
breeds.     They  resemble  the  Southdowns  and  Shropshires  in 


TYPES  AXU  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

general  conformation,  which  is  that  of  the  mutton  type. 
The  head  is  hornless,  the  poll,  or  top  of  the  head,  is  well 
covered  with  a  tuft  or  a  topknot  of  wool,  and  the  cheeks  are 
covered  with  wool,  although  the  rest  of  the  face  is  usually 
covered  with  dark  hair.  The  ears  are  rather  long,  thin,  set 
low  and  well  back,  and  are  free  from  wool.  The  face  and 
legs  are  of  a  dark-brown  color.  The  body  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Shropshire.  The  rump  is  broad,  level, 
and  well  covered  with  flesh. 

The  general  appearance  of  an  Oxford  Down  ram  is  shown 
in  Fig.  15  and  that  of  a  ewe  in  Fig.  1(3. 

When  mature,  Oxford  Down  rams  should  weigh  not  less 
than  275  pounds,  and  some  rams  of  the  breed  have  attained 
a  weight  of  400  pounds.  Mature  ewes  should  weigh  about 
200  pounds.  Lambs  dropped  in  April  should  weigh  from 
100  to  120  pounds  in  the  following  September. 

20.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — Oxford  Down  sheep,  like 
those  of  all  the  other  breeds  of  large  sheep,  thrive  best  in 
sections  of  well-cultivated  land  where  there  are  luxuriant 
pastures  and  abundant  feed  can  be  supplied  to  them.  They 
can  withstand  confinement  well  and  in  England  they  are 
pastured  largely  on  small  areas  enclosed  by  movable  fences. 
Oxford  Down  sheep  are  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
fertile  farming  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
the  breed,  wherever  introduced,  has  become  popular. 

Maturity. — The  Oxford  Downs  rank  high  for  maturity  on 
account  of  the  rapid  gains  made  by  the  lambs.  In  feeding 
experiments,  Oxford  Down  lambs  made  a  daily  gain  of  more 
than  \  pound  each  for  a  period  of  90  days. 

Breeding  Qualities. — Oxford  Down  sheep  are  noted  as  being 
prolific  breeders,  ranking  in  this  respect  next  to  the  Shrop- 
shires.  The  ewes  frequently  give  birth  to  twins,  are  good 
dams,  and  furnish  an  ample  supply  of  milk  for  the  lambs. 

On  account  of  the  increased  demand  for  mutton  and  the 
large  size  of  the  Oxford  Down  rams,  the  latter  have  been 
extensively  used  all  over  the  United  States,  especially  on  the 
western  ranges,  for  improving  the  mutton  quality  of  the  grade 


Fig.  15 


§31  TYPES  AM)   BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  25 

sheep  of  the  tine-wool  breeds.  When  an  Oxford  Down  ram 
is  used  on  common  grade  ewes  the  offspring  are  an  improve- 
ment over  the  dam  in  both  mutton  and  wool  qualities. 

Mutton  Production. — In  the  ability  to  produce  mutton, 
Oxford  Down  sheep  rank  high  on  account  of  their  Large 
carcasses,  the  small  proportion  of  waste  in  dressing,  and  the 
fine  quality  of  the  mutton.  The  lambs  grow  rapidly  and 
attain  a  desirable  killing  size  at  12  months  of  age,  and  when 
kept  until  older  they  continue  to  make  good  gains. 

Wool  Production. — As  wool  producers,  the  Oxford  Downs 
are  much  in  favor  on  account  of  their  heavy  fleeces.  The 
wool  is  of  a  quality  known  as  combing  wool,  which  is  longer 
and  coarser  than  that  from  sheep  of  any  of  the  other  medium- 
wool  breeds.  The  fleeces  from  a  flock  of  good  Oxford  Down 
sheep  should  average  from  10  to  12  pounds. 


HAMPSHIRE 

21.  General  Description. — A  general  idea  of  the  appear- 
ance of  sheep  of  the  Hampshire  breed  may  be  obtained  from 
Fig.  17,  which  shows  a  flock  of  Hampshire  lambs.  The  ears, 
nose,  and  legs  of  Hampshire  sheep  are  of  a  uniformly  dark- 
brown  color  that  often  shades  to  almost  black.  The  nose  of 
a  mature  ram  of  the  breed  is  thick,  bold,  and  of  an  intensely 
dark-brown  color;  the  nose  of  a  mature  ewe  is  more  delicate 
and  feminine  in  appearance  than  that  of  the  ram.  The  lips 
and  nostrils  of  the  Hampshire  are  black,  the  eyes  are  large, 
full,  and  of  a  rich,  yellow-brown  color.  The  ears,  the  back 
of  which  may  be  of  a  dark  mouse  color,  are  rather  long  and 
in  the  best  specimens  of  the  breed  are  inclined  to  fall  slightly 
outwards.  When  the  attention  of  a  Hampshire  is  attracted, 
the  ears  are  pricked  forwards,  which  gives  it  an  intelligent 
appearance.  The  head  is  well  covered  with  wool  between 
the  ears  and  on  the  cheeks;  the  neck  is  rather  long,  thick, 
and  well  muscled,  and  the  body  is  very  much  like  that  of 
an  animal  of  the  Oxford  Down  breed. 

A  Hampshire  ram  is  shown  in  Fig.  IS  and  a  ewe  in 
Fig.  19. 


Fig.  IS 


Pig.  19 


§31      TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP       27 

The  Hampshires  raised  in  America  are  lighter  in  weight 
than  the  Oxford  Downs,  but  in  England  the  Hampshires  are 
often  regarded  as  the  heaviest  sheep  of  the  medium-wool 
breeds.  Mature  rams  should  weigh  about  250  pounds  and 
mature  ewes  about  190  pounds.  Occasionally,  by  careful  breed- 
ing and  good  care,  rams  weighing  300  pounds  are  produced. 

22.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — Hampshire  sheep,  like  the 
Oxford  Downs,  thrive  best  when  they  are  supplied  with  an 
abundance  of  feed  and  are  allowed  to  graze  over  luxuriant 
pastures.  In  their  native  home,  Hampshire,  England,  they  are 
pastured  on  small  areas  enclosed  by  hurdles,  and  in  this  way 
a  large  number  of  sheep  are  maintained  on  a  small  area.  In 
the  United  States,  small  flocks  are  found  in  parts  of  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Indiana;  in  Canada,  they  are 
found  in  Ontario  and  Quebec. 

Maturity. — Hampshire  lambs  fatten  readily,  mature 
quickly,  and  are  much  sought  after  in  the  early  spring-lamb 
market. 

Breeding  Qualities. — The  Hampshires  are  good  breeders; 
about  115  lambs  are  raised  from  every  100  ewes  that  are 
successfully  bred.  The  crossing  of  Hampshires  with  sheep 
of  the  larger  breeds  is  extensively  practiced  and  produces 
desirable,  quick-maturing,  mutton  sheep.  Where  early  lambs 
— that  is,  lambs  for  the  early  spring-lamb  market — are  desired, 
the  Hampshire  ram  is  an  excellent  sire  to  use.  Hampshire 
rams  are  prepotent,  stamping  the  black  faces  and  the  rapid- 
fattening  and  early  maturing  qualities  on  their  offspring. 

Mutton  Production. — For  the  production  of  mutton,  Hamp- 
shire sheep  have  long  ranked  high  in  England,  and  during  the 
past  few  decades  have  met  with  favor  in  American  markets. 
The  sheep  of  this  breed  consume  large  quantities  of  feed  and 
make  gains  accordingly.  The  early  lambs  of  both  pure-bred 
and  grade  Hampshires  arc  highly  esteemed  by  mutton  buyers. 

Wool  Production. — The  wool  of  Hampshire  sheep  is  of 
nudium  length  and  is  not  as  fine  as  that  of  the  Southdowns. 
The  fleeces  of  a  flock  of  Hampshire  sheep  should  average 
about  7  pounds  each  in  weight. 


28  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  §31 


DORSET 

23.  General  Description. — The  Dorset  breed  of  sheep,  also 
known  as  the  Dorset  Horn  breed,  is  a  breed  that  is  distinctly 
marked.  Both  the  rams  and  the  ewes  have  horns.  The 
horns  of  the  ram  are  spirally  curved  rather  close  to  the  head ; 
those  of  the  ewe  are  shorter,  smaller,  not  so  close  to  the  head, 
and  are  curved  less  than  those  of  the  ram.  The  sheep  of  the 
Dorset  breed  have  white  faces  and  legs.  The  face,  muzzle, 
ears,  and  that  part  of  the  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks  are 
covered  with  short,  white  hair.  The  nostrils  are  large  and 
white.  The  body  of  the  Dorset,  although  smooth  and  well 
covered  with  flesh,  is  longer  in  proportion  to  its  depth  and 
width  than  the  body  of  a  sheep  of  the  other  breeds  of  the 
mutton  type. 

The  distinctive  markings  of  the  Dorset  may  be  seen  in 
Fig.  20,  which  shows  a  Dorset  ram,  and  in  Fig.  21,  which 
shows  three  Dorset  ewes. 

In  size,  sheep  of  the  Dorset  breed  rank  somewhat  above 
the  average  of  those  of  the  medium-wool  breeds.  Mature 
rams  should  weigh  about  225  pounds  and  mature  ewes  about 
Hi.")  pounds;  an  extra  good  2-year-old  ram  has  been  known 
to  weigh  317  pounds;  a  yearling  ram,  287  pounds;  a  5-month- 
old  ram  lamb,  1S4  pounds;  and  yearling  ewes,  250  pounds. 

24.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — Sheep  of  the  Dorset  breed 
are  fairly  hardy,  the  animals  being  able  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  a  rather  wide  range  of  conditions.  Although 
Dorsets  instinctively  choose  a  hilly  region  for  grazing,  they 
do  equally  well  on  level,  well-drained,  fertile  farm  land. 
They  are  good  grazers,  are  strong  limbed,  well  able  to 
travel,  and  will  exist  on  a  coarser  herbage  than  the  sheep  of 
many  other  breeds,  although  they  do  not  prefer  the  coarser 
herbage. 

Maturity. — The  sheep  of  this  breed  arc  noted  for  their 
ability  to  produce  early  lambs  and  are  unsurpassed  in  the 
rapid-maturing  quality  of  the  lambs.  For  this  reason  sheep 
of  the  Dorset  breed  are  considered  to  be  the  best  for  pro- 


Fig.  20 


30       TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

during  lambs  that  are  to  be  placed  on  the  market  from 
Christmas  to  about  the  first  of  May  as  hothouse  lambs. 

Breeding  Qualities. — Dorset  sheep  stand  without  equals  as 
breeders.  The  ewes  not  only  breed  regularly,  but  often 
produce  twins,  sometimes  triplets,  and  occasionally  quad- 
ruplets. The  ewes  can  often  be  made  to  breed  twice  a  year, 
and  will  breed  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year.  They  are 
good  dams  and  produce  a  good  supply  of  milk.  Dorset  ewes 
are  excellent  sheep  to  cross  with  a  Hampshire,  Shropshire, 
Oxford  Down,  or  Southdown  ram  when  it  is  desired  to  pro- 
duce early  lambs  with  the  natural  markings  of  the  ram  used. 

Mutton  Production. — In  the  production  of  mutton,  sheep  of 
the  Dorset  breed  rank  only  fair  among  those  of  the  medium- 
wool  breeds.  Sheep  of  this  breed  dress  with  a  larger  per- 
centage of  waste  than  those  of  some  other  breeds,  although 
the  quality  of  the  meat  is  fair.  The  principal  value  of  Dorset 
sheep  is  in  the  production  of  early,  or  hothouse  lambs,  for 
which  they  have  long  been  highly  valued.  It  is  the  custom 
to  have  the  ewes  lamb  in  September  or  October,  so  that  the 
lambs  will  be  ready  for  market  by  Christmas. 

Wool  Production. — The  Dorset  does  not  rank  high  in  pro- 
duction of  wool.  The  fiber  is  rather  short  and  of  medium 
quality,  and  the  fleece  does  not  cover  the  body  well  on  the 
under  parts.  Ewes  will  produce  about  6  pounds  of  unwashed 
wool  and  rams  from  9  to  10  pounds. 


CHKVIOT 

25.  General  Description. — Sheep  of  the  Cheviot  breed  are 
white  in  color  and  have  a  graceful  carriage.  The  head  is 
usually  hornless  in  the  case  of  both  the  male  and  the  female, 
although  occasionally  horns  occur  on  the  ram;  according  to 
an  enactment  of  the  American  Cheviot  Sheep  Society,  all 
male  lambs  dropped  after  January  1,  1905,  are  ineligible  to 
registry  unless  they  have  a  true  polled  head.  The  head, 
back  to  a  line  just  back  of  the  ears  and  around  under  the 
middle  of  the  lower  jaw.  and  the  legs  from  the  knees  and 
hocks  down,  are  usuallv  covered  with  fine,  white  hair:  some- 


s<  31 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


31 


times  small  black  spots,  which  are  not  considered  objection- 
able, appear  on  the  head  and  ears.  Reddish  or  sandy  hairs 
that  occasionally  occur  on  the  face  and  legs  are  objectionable. 
The  nose  frequently  has  a  slight  Roman  curve;  the  lips  and 
nostrils  are  generally  black,  but  occasionally  flesh  colored. 
The  ears  are  long  and  slender  and  stand  upright.  Cheviot 
sheep  are  lighter  in  the  forequarters  than  sheep  that  have 
been  raised  on  the  plains;  this  character  is  supposed  to  have 
been  inherited  from  the  ancestors  of  the  Cheviots,  which 
were    highly    adapted    to    mountain    climbing.     The  legs  of 


Fig. 


Cheviots  are  squarely  set,  and  the  hoofs  arc  black.  The 
bodies  lack  the  breadth  of  those  of  Southdowns  or  Shrop- 
shires,  but  they  are  well  covered  with  flesh.  The  bodies  are 
covered  all  over,  except  on  the  head  and  legs,  with  fleeces 
of  medium  wool. 

A  Cheviot  ram  is  shown  at  the  right  and  a  Cheviot  ewe  at 
the  left  in  Fig.  22. 

A  mature  Cheviot  ram  should  weigh  from  200  to  225  pounds 
and  a  mature  ewe  from  150  to  1(30  pounds. 


32  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  §  31 

26.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — From  the  long  period  of 
mountain  existence  of  the  breed,  Cheviot  sheep  are  well 
adapted  to  mountain  conditions.  The  animals  are  good 
climbers  and  are  able  to  graze  over  rugged  land,  although 
they  do  well  also  on  more  level  lands.  The  extreme  hardi- 
ness of  Cheviot  sheep  is  a  point  in  favor  of  the  breed. 

Breeding  Qualities. — The  breeding  qualities  of  Cheviot  sheep 
are  somewhat  above  the  average.  The  ewes  breed  regularly, 
require  but  little  attention  at  lambing  time,  and  produce  a 
good  supply  of  milk.  They  are  not  as  prolific,  however,  as 
those  of  the  Shropshire  or  Dorset  breeds.  Cheviot  sheep, 
especially  the  ewes,  are  extensively  used  for  crossing  with 
Lincoln  or  Leicester  rams.  Such  a  cross  produces  lambs  that 
are  more  hardy  and  yield  carcasses  with  less  fat  than  those  of 
either  the  Lincoln  or  the  Leicester  sheep. 

Mutton  Production. — The  quality  of  the  meat  of  the  Cheviot 
is  good,  although  not  so  delicate  as  that  of  the  Southdown, 
and  there  is  comparatively  little  offal  in  dressing. 

Wool  Production. — Cheviot  sheep  produce  fleeces  of  a 
medium  quality  known  in  the  market  as  half  combing  wool. 
The  wool  is  coarse  in  texture,  although  longer  than  that  of  the 
best  Shropshire,  but  is  superior  to  that  of  the  Oxford.  The 
average  weight  of  fleeces  of  Cheviot  sheep  has  been  greatly 
increased  by  careful  breeding  and  management,  but  it  is  still 
somewhat  light.  Fleeces  from  rams  should  weigh  from 
about  7  to  1 1  pounds  and  those  from  ewes  should  weigh  from 
about  5  to  9  pounds. 

SUFFOLK 

27.  General  Description. — Sheep  of  the  Suffolk  breed  have 
a  characteristic  inky-black  color  in  the  region  of  the  head, 
ears,  and  legs.  The  head,  in  the  case  of  both  the  male  and 
the  female,  is  hornless.  The  face  is  long  and  narrow,  and  the 
ears  long  and  rather  large.  The  face  and  the  ears  are  covered 
with  jet-black  hair;  there  is  rarely  any  wool  on  any  part  of 
the  head,  although  a  small  quantity  of  clean,  white  wool  on 
the  forehead  is  not  regarded  as  objectionable.  The  neck 
and  less  are  inclined  to  be  a  little  long  and  the  bodv  some- 


Fig.  23 


Fig.  24 


243—13 


34  TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  §  31 

what  rangy,  although  it  has  a  good  spring  of  rib.  The  fleece 
is  moderately  long  and  fine,  covering  the  body  to  the  head 
and  the  legs  nearly  to  the  knees  and  hocks. 

A  Suffolk  ram  is  shown  in  Fig.  23  and  a  ewe  of  the  same 
breed  in  Fig.  24.     . 

In  size,  the  Suffolk  sheep  rank  somewhat  above  the  average 
of  those  of  the  medium-wool  breeds.  Mature  rams  should 
weigh  from  about  225  to  240  pounds,  and  mature  ewes  about 
175  pounds. 

28.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — Suffolk  sheep  are  hardy, 
and  it  is  claimed  that  they  will  obtain  a  living  on  pastures 
where  sheep  of  other  breeds  will  starve.  They  are  best 
adapted  for  the  production  of  high-class  mutton,  wool  being 
a  secondary  consideration.  They  thrive  best  on  rather  level 
or  only  slightly  rolling,  fertile  grazing  land.  There  are  but 
few  Suffolk  sheep  in  North  America,  and  these  are  found 
largely  in  Xew  York,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Missouri, 
in  the  United  States,  and  in  Ontario,  Canada. 

Breeding  (Jualities. — The  Suffolks  are  among  the  most 
prolific  of  sheep.  The  ewes  give  an  abundance  of  milk  and 
are  good  dams.  They  frequently  produce  twins,  and  triplets 
are  not  uncommon. 

Mutton  Production. — Sheep  of  this  breed  rank  high  for  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  the  mutton  that  they  produce.  The 
meat  is  fine-grained,  of  good  flavor,  and  has  a  good  proportion 
of  lean  to  fat,  both  of  which  are  properly  distributed.  Suffolk 
sheep  make  fair  gains  for  the  quantity  of  feed  consumed,  and 
mature  rapidly. 

Wool  Production. — As  wool  producers  Suffolk  sheep  do  not 
rank  high.  They  are  inclined  to  be  bare  of  wool  on  the 
under  part  of  the  body,  and  the  fleeces  are  somewhat  light. 

The  fleeces  from  a  flock  of  Suffolk  sheep  vary  in  weight 
from  about  7  to  9  pounds  each. 


Fig. 


Fig.  2C> 


36  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  §  31 


COARSE-WOOL    BREEDS 


LINCOLN 


29.  General  Description. — Sheep  of  the  Lincoln  breed  are 
large,  squarely  built  animals,  and  are  nearly  white  in  color. 
The  head  is  large  and  hornless  in  the  case  of  both  the  ram 
and  the  ewe;  the  face  is  rather  long  and  usually  is  covered 
with  fine,  white  hairs,  but  frequently  has  a  grayish  tinge  over 
the  nose;  the  poll  is  surmounted  by  a  short  tuft  of  wool;  and 
the  ears  are  large  and  often  covered  with  brownish  spots. 
Animals  of  this  breed  are  noted  for  their  broad,  level,  deep- 
fleshed  back;  deep,  well-sprung  ribs;  and  square,  well-devel- 
oped hindquarters.  The  legs  are  inclined  to  be  rather  long 
and  are  sometimes  covered  nearly  to  the  hoofs  with  short 
wool.  The  wool  is  inclined  to  be  coarse,  but  is  long,  strong, 
and  lustrous,  and  lies  in  spiral  locks  or  flakes. 

A  Lincoln  ram  is  shown  in  Fig.  25  and  a  ewe  in  Fig.  26. 

Lincoln  sheep  are  the  largest  of  any  breed.  Mature  rams 
should  weigh  from  about  275  to  300  pounds,  and  mature  ewes 
from  about  225  to  250  pounds. 

30.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — On  account  of  their  large 
size,  Lincoln  sheep  are  best  adapted  to  level  regions  where 
the  supply  of  feed  is  plentiful.  A  larger  number  of  Lincolns 
are  raised  in  Ontario  and  other  provinces  of  Canada  than  in 
the  United  States,  where  the  leading  flocks  are  found  in 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  Ohio. 

Breeding  Qualities. — Lincoln  ewes  are  not  prolific  breeders, 
but  are  better  in  this  respect  than  those  of  either  of  the  other 
coarse-wool  breeds.  They  are  good  dams  but  do  not  produce 
a  large  quantity  of  milk.  The  grade  sheep  resulting  from 
the  cross  of  a  Lincoln  ram  and  ewes  of  the  fine-wool  breeds 
are  favorites  when  it  is  desired  to  produce  large,  rapidly 
growing  lambs  that  fatten  easily  and  furnish  large  chops  and 
legs  of  mutton.  This  cross  has  been  practiced  to  some  extent 
on  the  ranges  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  but 


§31      TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP       37 

exceptionally  large-bodied  sheep  have  not  been  so  popular 
in  the  United  States  as  they  have  in  England,  where  grade 
sheep  showing  the  Lincoln  cross  are  popular. 

Mutton  Production. — Lincoln  sheep  are  good  feeders  and 
mature  quickly,  but  they  do  not  rank  high  as  mutton  pro- 
ducers. The  carcass  is  too  large  to  suit  the  modern  market 
demand,  yields  too  much  fat,  and  the  quality  of  the  meat  is 
not  first  class. 

Wool  Production. — Sheep  of  this  breed  produce  longer  wool 
and  heavier  fleeces  than  those  of  any  other  breed  with  the 
exception  of  sheep  of  the  fine-wool  breeds.  The  fleece,  which 
should  cover  the  entire  body,  including  the  under  parts,  is 
formed  of  many  strands,  or  flakes,  which  have  been  known 
to  measure  20  inches  in  length.  The  wool  is  bright  and 
lustrous  and  of  a  quality  known  as  combing  wool.  A  mature 
ewe  should  produce  a  fleece  weighing  about  15  pounds,  and 
a  mature  ram  should  produce  a  fleece  weighing  from  about 
18  to  20  pounds.  The  fleece  of  a  ram  of  this  breed  has  been 
known  to  weigh  30  pounds. 


LEICESTER 

31.  General  Description. — The  Leicester  breed  is  divided 
into  two  strains;  the  English,  or  Dishley,  Leicester,  and  the 
Border  Leicester.  These  names  are  derived  from  the  sections 
of  England  where  the  two  strains  were  developed.  The 
sheep  of  the  two  strains  are  much  the  same  in  general  appear- 
ance, and  the  same  description  will  apply  to  both,  except 
where  differences  are  stated. 

The  heads  of  both  the  ram  and  the  ewe  are  hornless  and 
usually  are  white,  although  small  black  spots  occasionally 
occur  on  the  face  and  ears.  The  head  of  a  Border  Leicester 
is  covered  with  fine,  soft,  white  hair,  but  occasionally  the 
poll  of  the  head  of  a  Dishley  Leicester  is  covered  with  a  tuft 
of  short  wool.  The  ears  are  thin,  somewhat  large,  and  stand 
rather  erect.  The  nose  is  slightly  Roman  and  the  skin  at  the 
muzzle  is  black.  The  neck  is  short  and  blends  with  the  deep, 
wide  shoulders.     The  breast  is  deep,  wide,  and  projects  well 


38 


TYPES  AXD  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


§  31 


forwards.  The  ribs  spring  squarely  from  the  backbone, 
making  a  broad,  level  back.  The  body  is  long — it  is  longer 
in  the  Border  Leicester  than  in  the  Dishley  Leicester — and 
very  broad,  but  lacks  in  depth.  The  flanks  are  well  rilled 
and  the  under  line  of  the  body  is  parallel  with  the  top  line. 
The  hindquarters  are  not  so  large  as  breeders  desire,  because 
the  thighs  are  not  sufficiently  thick,  especially  near  the  hocks. 
The  legs  are  straight,  squarely  set  under  the  body,  and  are 
covered  below   the  knees  and   hocks  with   soft,   white   hair. 


Fig.  27 

The  body  is  covered  with  an  open  fleece  of  medium-long 
wool  arranged  in  small  spiral  locks. 

A  fine  specimen  of  a  Border  Leicester  ram  is  shown  in  Fig.  27 
and  a  flock  of  Leicester  ewes  in  Fig.  28. 

Mature  Leicester  rams  should  weigh  from  about  22.")  to 
250  pounds  and  mature  ewes  from  about  175  to  200  pounds. 

32.  Qualities. — Adaptability. — The  Leicester  sheep  are 
large,  quiet,  docile,  and  best  adapted  to  localities  where 
pastures  are  luxuriant  and  the  ground  not  rough,  and  where 


40       TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      §31 

there  is  an  abundance  of  feed.  On  account  of  the  open 
character  of  the  fleece,  Leicester  sheep  are  sensitive  to  cold 
rains  and  therefore  require  shelter  much  of  the  time  during 
winter  months.  They  are  more  common  in  Canada  than  in 
the  United  States. 

Breeding  Quality. — Leicester  ewes  are  not,  as  a  rule,  prolific 
breeders,  although  some  flocks  have  been  known  to  produce 
more  than  125  lambs  for  each  100  ewes  successfully  bred. 
If  a  Leicester  ram  is  crossed  with  American  or  Delaine  Merino, 
Rambouillet,  Hampshire,  or  Cheviot  ewes,  lambs  are  pro- 
duced that  are  much  valued  for  their  ability  to  make  rapid 
gains  and  to  produce  a  good  quality  of  mutton. 

Mutton  Production. — When  mature  and  fitted  for  market, 
Leicester  sheep  carry  too  much  fat  to  be  popular.  The  lambs 
fatten  readily  and  make  desirable  mutton  if  killed  before  they 
are  12  months  old. 

Wool  Production. — The  wool  of  Leicester  sheep  is  about 
6  inches  long  and  is  a  fine  grade  of  coarse  wool.  It  is  arranged 
in  small  spiral  locks,  which  makes  the  fleece  rather  open  and 
light.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleeces  of  a  flock  of  Leicester 
sheep  should  be  from  about  Si  to  11  pounds  each. 


COTS  WOLD 

33.  General  Description. — Sheep  of  the  Costwold  breed  are 
large,  long-wooled,  and  white  in  color,  and  somewhat  resemble 
those  of  the  Lincoln  and  the  Leicester  breeds.  The  head  in 
the  case  of  both  the  male  and  the  female  is  hornless  and 
carried  high,  and  the  poll  is  surmounted  by  curling  locks  of 
wool,  which  often  almost  cover  the  eyes  and  extend  down 
as  far  as  the  nostrils.  This  forelock  is  one  of  the  character- 
istic features  of  the  breed  and  is  not  trimmed  when  the  sheep 
are  shorn  or  trimmed  for  show.  The  face  is  usually  covered 
with  white  hair,  but  is  sometimes  spotted  with  gray  or  brown 
patches.  The  nose  is  straighter  than  that  of  the  Leicester. 
The  body  has  much  the  same  broad-backed,  squarely  built 
conformation  as  that  of  a  sheep  of  the  Lincoln  breed,  but  the 
heart  girth  is  often  greater  in  proportion  to  the  girth  around 


Fig.  29 


Pig.  30 


42  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  N<  31 

the  hind  flanks  than  is  the  case  with  a  Lincoln.  The  legs, 
especially  the  hind  legs,  are  long  compared  with  those  of  an 
animal  of  the  Lincoln  or  the  Leicester  breed.  The  wool  is 
rather  coarse  and  hair-like,  and  hangs  in  spiral  curls,  or  locks. 

A  Cotswold  ram  is  shown  in  Fig.  29  and  a  ewe  in  Fig.  30. 

In  size,  Cotswold  sheep  are  larger  than  those  of  the  Leicester 
and  almost  and  sometimes  fully  as  large  as  those  of  the 
Lincoln  breed.  The  weight  of  these  sheep  will  average  about 
25  pounds  lighter  than  that  of  the  Lincolns.  A  mature  ram 
should  weigh  from  about  250  to  275  pounds,  and  a  mature 
ewe  from  about  200  to  250  pounds. 

34.  Qualities. — Adaptability — Like  the  Lincoln  and  Lei- 
cester, the  Cotswold  is  best  adapted  to  level  countries  where 
there  is  an  abundant  supply  of  feed. 

Breeding  Qualities. — Cotswold  ewes,  like  ewes  of  the  other 
coarse-wool  breeds,  do  not  rank  high  in  prolificacy.  The 
Cotswold  ewes,  however,  give  an  abundance  of  milk  and  take 
good  care  of  their  lambs. 

Cotswold  rams  crossed  on  pure-bred  or  grade  ewes  of  the 
fine-wool  breeds  produce  lambs  that  grow  to  a  desirable  size, 
yield  fleeces  of  fair  weight  and  quality,  and  have  good  mutton 
carcasses.  This  cross  is  extensively  practiced  on  the  ranges 
in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States. 

Mutton  Production. — Cotswold  sheep  are  good  grazers  and 
feeders,  make  rapid  gains,  and,  if  killed  before  12  months  of 
age,  make  a  desirable  grade  of  mutton.  If  they  are  allowed 
to  grow  to  2  years  of  age,  the  carcasses  are  too  large,  bear 
too  much  fat,  and  the  flesh  is  not  of  as  desirable  quality  as 
when  the  sheep  are  killed  at  a  younger  age. 

Wool  Production. — Cotswold  sheep  produce  a  lustrous 
combing  wool,  which  often  reaches  12  to  15  inches  in  length. 
The  wool  is  coarser  than  that  of  either  Leicester  or  Lincoln 
sheep.  An  average  fleece  should  weigh  from  about  9  to 
10  pounds. 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


SHEEP  JUDGING 

1.  The  aim  of  a  sheep  breeder  should  be  to  improve  his 
flock  from  year  to  year.  In  order  to  bring  about  this  improve- 
ment it  is  necessary  that  the  breeder  have  the  ability  to 
judge  sheep.  Sheep  judging  is  the  art  of  ascertaining  and 
weighing  the  merits  of  a  sheep  in  comparison  with  those  of 
other  sheep  or  of  an  ideal  sheep  in  the  mind  of  the  judge. 
If  the  breeder  has  an  understanding  of  this  art  he  will 
be  able  to  select  each  year  superior  young  ewes  to  replace 
the  inferior  old  ones  of  his  flock.  The  sheep  breeder,  there- 
fore, should  become  familiar  with  the  principal  operations 
of  a  judge  as  he  catches,  handles,  examines,  and  {daces, 
according  to  merit,  the  individuals  of  a  ring  of  sheep  at 
fairs  and  livestock  exhibitions.  By  a  ring  of  sheep  is  meant 
all  the  sheep  of  a  class — that  is,  of  the  same  breed,  grade, 
or  type,  and  usually  of  the  same  age  and  sex — gathered 
together  for  examination  by  a  judge. 

2.  Catching  of  Sheep. — One  of  the  first  things  the  begin- 
ner in  sheep  raising  or  sheep  judging  should  learn  is  how  to 
catch  and  handle  a  sheep.  Usually  the  best  way  to  catch 
a  sheep  is  to  slip  quietly  up  behind  or  alongside  of  it  and 
quickly  yet  quietly  and  firmly  grasp  the  hind  leg  just  above 
the  hock,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  Some  sheep  men  prefer  to  catch 
a  sheep  by  the  head  or  around  the  neck.  Rather  tame  sheep 
can  be  caught  by  approaching  from  the  rear  and  catching 
them  by  the  flank,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  A  shepherd's  crook 
is  a  valuable  implement  with  which  to  catch  sheep  that  are 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY.        ENTERED   AT   STATIONERS'    HALL.    LONDON 

&  39 


2  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §32 

not  sufficiently  tamed  to  be  caught  with  the  hands.     Sheep 
should  never  be   caught  by  pouncing   upon  their  backs  and 


ll  IIHIHlliiilllliliiiliii! 
|ffl 


ii  11  in 

ipiiiii 


Fig.  1 


grasping  their  wool.     Such  attempts  at  catching  them  usually 
terrorize  the  sheep,  causing  them  to  plunge  and  struggle  in  a 


Fig.  2 


frantic  manner,  which  often  results  in  pulling  out  or  loosen- 
ing quantities  of  wool  and  otherwise  injuring  the  animals. 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING   AND   HREEDIXC  3 

3.  Handling  of  Sheep.— If  sheep  are  caught  by  the  hind 
leg  in  the  way  just  described,  their  attention  is  usually 
diverted  by  the  captured  leg;  they  do  not  struggle  much  and 
can  be  held  thus.  Bui  it  iseasierand  presents  a  better  appear- 
ance in  the  show  ring  to  hoi  1  them  by  the  head.  While 
holding  the  animal  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  it  is  a  simple  matter 
to  pass  the  left  hand  under  the  neck  from  the  left  side  of  the 
animai  and  then,  releasing  the  hold  on  the  leg,  pass  the  right 
hand  up  over  the  side  and  on  top  of  the  neck,  at  the  same 
time  stepping  forward  to  the  neck  of  the  animal.  From  the 
neck  hold,  it  is  easy  to  pass  to  the  most  common  position  of 


Fig.  3 


holding  sheep,  that  is,  with  one  hand  under  the  jaw  and  the 
other  hand  over  the  forehead,  the  person  holding  the  sheep 
standing  somewhat  to  the  rear  of  its  head.  If  the  animal  is 
quiet,  the  one  hand  under  the  jaw  is  all  that  is  necessary 
to  hold  it  and  the  attendant  may  stand  or  sit  in  front  of  the 
sheep.  If  the  sheep  struggles,  both  hands  should  be  used 
and  a  slight  turn  of  the  head  and  a  little  force  will  easily  keep 
the  animal  under  control  and  soon  calm  it. 

4.  Throwing  a  Sheep. — The  sheep  breeder  and  judge 
often  has  occasion  to  throw,  or  set  up,  a  sheep;  that  is,  to  set 
it  on  its  hindquarters  with  its  back  in  a  more  or  less  vertical 
position.     The  proper  way  to  throw  a  sheep  is  as  follows: 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


«  32 


Stand  at  its  right  side  and  with  the  right  hand  and  wrist 
under  its  jaw,  pass  the  left  hand  under  the  animal  and  grasp 
its  left  hind  leg  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  Then  pass  the  right  arm 
under  the  animal's  neck,  make  a  quick,  gentle  side  shove  and 
lift  the  front  legs  up  off  the  ground.  These  movements 
should  be  rapid  but  firm  and  gentle,  and  should  not  result 
in  injuring  or  frightening  the  animal,  but  should  set  it  on 
its  hindquarters  with  its  back  almost  vertical,  fore  legs  hang- 
ing in  the  air  toward  the  sides,  and  the  head  supported  in 
the  attendant's  lap. 


Fig.  4 

5.  Leading  a  Sheep. — A  sheep  that  has  not  been  trained 
to  lead,  is  usually  a  very  stubborn  animal  when  occasion  arises 
to  lead  it  if  the  attendant  does  not  know  how  to  proceed. 
The  best  way  to  lead  a  sheep  is  to  place  one  hand  under  the 
lower  jaw  and  with  the  other  hand  grasp  the  root  of  the  tail 
or  the  end  of  the  dock,  as  shown  in  Fig.  -4.  A  slight  pressure 
on  this  part  of  the  tail  will  cause  the  animal  to  march  ahead 
and  this  without  much  effort  on  the  part  of  the  shep- 
herd and  without  pain  or  fear  on  the  part  of  the  sheep.     An 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  5 

untrained  sheep  is  almost  sure  to  resent  attempts  to  pull  it 
along  by  the  head,  and  to  pull  back  as  much  as  possible. 

6.  Results  of  the  Training  of  Sheep.— Sheep  that  are 
handled  frequently  may  be  trained  to  do  many  things.  Some- 
times shepherds  train  their  sheep  to  stand  so  that  defects  in 
conformation  will  be  hidden.  Animals  that  are  narrow  behind 
or  in  the  chest,  can  be  trained  to  stand  with  their  legs  wide 
apart,  thus  making  the  sheep  appear  full  and  well  developed. 
A  weak  back  can  sometimes  be  momentarily  strengthened 
by  the  sheep  pressing  against  an  attendant's  knee.  These 
little  tricks  seldom  cover  up  faults  so  that  a  competent  judge 
will  be  deluded.  The  greatest  benefits  to  be  derived  from 
training  is  to  make  the  animals  tame  and  stand  at  ease  in  the 
very  best  position  to  show  off  to  advantage  while  being 
inspected.  This  is  a  legitimate  purpose,  because  the  best 
animals  do  not  do  justice  to  themselves  if  they  are  frightened 
and  restless  while  in  the  show  ring. 

7.  System  of  Procedure  in  Judging  of  Sheep. — It  does  not 
matter  what  the  system  of  procedure  in  the  judging  of  sheep 
may  be  so  long  as  it  allows  the  judge  to  follow  a  definite 
scheme  of  examination  of  each  part  of  each  animal  in  the 
ring.  The  system  usually  followed  by  the  best  judges  is  to 
stand  about  10  feet  away  and  take  a  general  view  of  each 
animal  in  the  ring  from  the  front,  side,  and  rear  to  form  an 
estimate  of  them  as  a  whole  and  to  decide  upon  certain 
points  about  each  animal.  This  will  save  time  and  help  to 
fix  each  animal  in  mind.  Later  each  animal  is  handled  and 
examined  thoroughly. 

8.  General  Examination  in  Judging  of  Sheep. — Pure-bred 
sheep  should  be  typical  of  the  breed  to  which  they  belong. 
An  animal  is  said  to  show  good  or  poor  breed  type  according 
to  the  degree  to  which  it  approaches  to  the  ideal  animal  of 
the  breed.  The  ideal  for  each  breed  has  been  established 
by  the  breeders  who  have  developed  the  breeds,  and  a  judge 
should  know  the  characters  of  each  breed,  such  as  the  desir- 
able size,  color  markings,  shape  of  the  head  and  body,  length, 


6  SHEEP  JUDGING  AXD  BREEDING  $  32 

density,  fineness,  and  crimp  of  the  wool,  and  the  length  of 
the  legs.  These  characters  indicate  breed  type  and  should 
be  noticed  by  a  judge  as  he  examines  a  ring  of  sheep.  From 
the  front  view  the  judge  can  see  the  width  of  the  breast 
and  the  straightness  of  the  fore  legs  and  the  head.  The 
head  is  one  of  the  most  important  indexes  of  the  animal. 
It  is  important  in  indicating  whether  or  not  the  animal  has 
vigor  and  is  of  the  breed  type  that  is  desired  in  pure-bred 
animals.  The  head  should  be  typical  of  the  breed,  broad 
and  full  in  the  forehead,  the  face  short  with  a  clean-cut 
appearance,  and  the  eyes  large  and  bright.  From  the  side 
view,  the  judge  can  get  the  outlines  and  general  balance  of 
the  animal.  The  neck  should  appear  short  and  well  carried ; 
the  legs  should  be  short,  giving  the  animal  a  low-set  appear- 
ance. The  thighs,  the  placing  of  the  hind  legs,  and  width 
of  body  can  be  viewed  from  the  rear.  These  general  views 
should  indicate  the  form  of  each  sheep.  The  form  of  a  sheep 
should  be  attractive;  the  back  from  the  top  of  the  shoulders 
to  the  root  of  the  tail  should  be  a  straight  line,  which  is 
known  as  the  top  line.  The  under  line,  that  is,  the  bottom 
line  of  the  body  from  the  fore  legs  to  the  hind  legs,  should 
also  be  straight.  In  specimens  of  the  mutton  type  of  sheep 
the  body  should  be  broad,  deep,  compact,  rugged,  and 
symmetrical;  and  the  legs,  short.  The  development  of  these 
characters  is  less,  but  the  development  of  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  fleece  is  much  more  in  specimens  of  the  wool 
type  of  sheep  than  in  those  of  the  mutton  type. 

9.     Detailed    Examination    in    Judging    of    Sheep. — After 

having  made  a  general  survey  of  a  ring  of  sheep,  the  next 
step  of  a  judge  is  to  handle  and  examine  each  sheep  thor- 
oughly. As  this  examination  is  made  the  judge  should  study 
the  condition  and  the  quality  of  each  animal.  Condition  is 
a  relative  term  used  to  designate  the  quantity  and  the 
degree  of  evenness  of  the  distribution  of  fat  on  an  animal. 
Sheep  frequently  have  too  much  fat,  which  is  objectionable 
from  every  point  of  view.  The  fat  should  be  firm  and 
elastic  under  the  hand  and  evenly  laid  over  the  bodv.     One 


$  32 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


way  of  judging  the  condition  of  a  sheep  is  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  fat  at  the  root  of  the  tail  by  feeling  that  part 
of  the  sheep,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  higher  the -condition, 
that  is,  the  fatter  the  sheep,  the  more  fat  will  be  deposited 
around  the  root  of  the  tail.  As  the  judge  examines  the  loin,' 
back,  ribs,  and  breast  of  a  sheep  he  should  receive  impres- 
sions of  the  condition  of  the  animal. 

The  quality  of  a  sheep  is  judged  by  the  condition  of  the 
bone  in  legs,  shoulders,  and   head.      If  the  bone  is  smooth 


Fig.  5 

and  rather  small  and  gives  the  idea  of  compactness,  the  sheep 
is  said  to  have  good  quality ;  if  it  is  rough  or  large,  the  sheep 
is  said  to  lack  quality.  The  fineness  or  the  coarseness  of  the 
wool,  the  pliability  of  the  skin,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  flesh 
indicate,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  degree  of  quality  that  a 
sheep  possesses.  Quality  is  a  difficult  point  for  a  judge  to 
decide.  Sheep  that  show  coarseness  or  a  lack  of  quality 
as  well  as  those  that  have  an  excessive  amount  of  quality 

'24:'.— 14 


8 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


§32 


are  undesirable  animals,  because  they  are  not  usually  so 
rugged  nor  so  useful  as  sheep  with  large  frames  and  strong 
bones.  Quality  is,  therefore,  only  a  relative  character. 
Its  indications  should  be  noted  as  the  judge  makes  the 
detailed  examination  of  each  sheep.  The  plan  of  procedure 
in  handling  a  sheep,  as  usually  practiced  by  sheep  judges, 
is  to  inspect  (1)  the  hindquarters;  (2)  the  back,  loin,  shoulders, 
and  neck,  in  succession;  (3)  width  of  the  body  throughout; 


Fig.  6 


(4)  depth  of  the  body  and  chest;  and  (5)  the  wool.  In 
making  an  examination  of  the  different  parts,  the  hands 
must  be  used.  By  keeping  the  hands  almost  flat  the  wool 
will  not  be  injured  and  one  can  do  the  handling  better  than 
if  the  ends  of  the  fingers  are  gouged  into  the  fleece.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  hands  to  work  more  rapidly 
than  the  brain  and  that  some  definite  sensation  is  received 
each  time  the  hands  touch  the  animal. 


w 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


9 


10.  The  method  of  measuring  the  length  of  the  hind- 
quarter  is  shown  in  Fig.  (i.  One  hand  is  placed  in  a  vertical 
position  in  front  of  the  hip  bone  and  the  other  just  back  of 
the  pin,  or  rump  bone,  and  the  distance  gauged  with  the  eye. 
This  is  the  part  of  the  animal  that  furnishes  the  valuable 
rump  roast  of  mutton  and  should  be  long,  straight,  and  well 
developed.  A  short,  drooping  hindquarter  is  very  objection- 
able in  sheep  of  the  mutton  type. 

Fig.  7  illustrates  how  a  judge  uses  his  hands  to  determine 
the  extent  to  which  the  flesh  on  the  rump  is  carried  out  to 


Fig.  7 


the  dock.  The  hands  in  this  position  should  be  from  1  to 
6  inches  apart,  one  hand  on  either  side  of  a  firm,  meaty 
formation.  Sometimes  this  region  is  covered  with  a  great 
mass  of  fat,  which  indicates  waste,  and  hence  an  overdone, 
undesirable,  condition  of  the  sheep.  The  position  in  which  a 
judge  places  his  hands  to  determine  the  development  of  that 
part  of  the  sheep  known  as  the  leg  of  mutton,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.     This  part  of  the  sheep  should  be  full,  well  muscled, 


10 


SHEEP  JUDGIXG  AXD  BREEDIXG 


§  32 


and  fill  the  hands  as  they  are  held  in  the  position  illustrated. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  animals  well  developed  behind, 
with  the  twist  especially  low,  seldom  appear  to  have  as  large 
a  leg  of  mutton  as  other  animals  that  are  cut  up  in  the  twist 
and  with  a  poorly  developed  thigh.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  more  open  an  animal  is  in  the  twist  and  the  poorer 
the  development  of  the  thigh  on  the  outside  of  the  leg  the 
higher  up  one  can  get  his  hands  in  feeling  the  leg  of  mutton, 


Fig.  8 

and  on  account  of  this  fact  a  judge  must  be  careful  not  to 
call  a  poor  leg  of  mutton  a  good  one. 

11.  All  sheep  should  have  an  approximately  straight  top 
line.  A  sag  in  the  back  is  very  much  objected  to,  because  it 
indicates  a  weakness  in  support  and  a  lack  of  flesh  on  the 
back.  This  being  in  the  region  of  high-priced  cuts  of  mutton, 
it  is  important  that  the  animal  be  smooth  and  well  covered 
along  the  back  and  loin.     Fine-wooled  sheep  are  not  usually 


§32 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


11 


so  well  covered  with  flesh  over  the  back  and  loin  as  are  the 
sheep  of  the  mutton  1  .reels.  Careful  handling  is  necessary  to 
detect  imperfections  in  the  top  line,  for  an  expert  can  easily 
clip  the  wool  so  that  a  weak  back  appears  straight  and  strong. 
The  handling  is  usually  done  by  first  placing  the  hand  flat 
over  on  the  backbone  between  the  hips,  then  the  region 
between  the  rump  and  neck  is  examined  by  four  or  more 
progressively  forward  movements  of  the  hand.  At  each  of 
these  movements  the  hand  should  be  pressed  firmly  against 


Fig.  9 

the  wool,  and  when  in  close  contact  with  the  back,  a  slight 
movement  forwards  and  backwards  will  add  to  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  inspection.  The  correct  position  of  the  hand  in 
examining  the  back  to  determine  its  strength,  straightness, 
and  covering  of  flesh  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  fingers  are  held  together  in  a  horizontal  position  so 
as  to  detect  any  differences  in  the  straightness  of  the  back. 

12.     The  position  of  the  hand  for  feeling  the  top  of  the 
shoulders  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.      The  hand,  in  this  position, 


12 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


§  32 


is  gently  moved  in  all  directions  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  shoulders  are  compact — that  is,  smooth  and  close 
together  on  top — or  are  rough,  open,  and  prominent.  By 
examining  the  shoulders  farther  down,  the  judge  is  enabled 
to  determine  whether  or  not  the  shoulder  is  well  laid  into 
the  body  and  covered  with  meat.  After  examining  the 
shoulders  the  judge  should  pass  to  the  neck,  which  should 
be  short,  refined  at  the  juncture  of  the  head,  and  blend  well 
into  the  shoulders.      A  drop  in  front  of  the  shoulders  is  objec- 


Fig.  10 

tionable.  It  indicates  weakness  and  gives  the  animal  the 
unsightly  appearance  known  as  "ewe  neck."  A  ewe-neck 
condition,  although  it  may  have  been  concealed  from  the  eye 
by  shearing  away  some  of  the  wool,  can  easily  be  detected 
with  the  hands. 

13.  To  determine  the  width  of  back  and  spring  of  ribs, 
one  hand  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  back,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1 1 , 
and  the  course  of  the  ribs  followed  downwards.  It  is  most 
desirable  that  there  be  a  heavy,  firm  covering  of  flesh  over 


§32 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


13 


the  ribs,  giving  them  as  much  arch  as  possible.  The  hands 
are  next  moved  to  measure-  the  width  through  the  chest;  it 
is  desirable  to  have  the  fore  flank  low  and  full,  because  this 
indicates  vigor  and  feeding  capacity.  The  real  width  and 
substance  of  the  sheep  can  be  best  ascertained  by  determining 
the  width  through  the  ribs  and  the  depth  of  the  body  just 
back  of  the  fore  legs.  The  movements  necessary  to  make 
these  determinations  press  away  the  wool  and  enable  one  to 
get  an  idea  of  the  weight  of  the  sheep. 


Fig.  11 

14.  A  good  method  of  determining  the  width  of  the  loin 
is  shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  length  and  the  thickness  of  the 
covering  of  the  loin  should  also  be  examined.  Many  good 
judges  use  one  hand  to  feel  the  width  and  covering  of  the  loin 
by  placing  the  thumb  on  one  side  and  extending  the  fingers 
until  they  pass  the  other  side  of  the  loin.  This  is  a  quick  and 
effective  method  after  one  becomes  familiar  with  it. 

15.  The  chest  is  cheap  meat  and  the  butcher  would  like 
as  little  development  here  as  possible,  but  the  breeder  and 


14  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 

feeder  have  found  that  a  deep,  broad,  prominent  chest  is 
usually  associated  with  hardy,  vigorous,  good-feeding  sheep. 
To  determine  the  depth  of  the  chest,  one  hand  should  be 
placed  on  top  just  back  of  the  shoulders  and  the  other  hand, 
between  the  front  legs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13,  and  the  distance 
between  the  two  hands  noted.  At  this  time  the  judge 
should  notice  whether  the  depth  of  the  sheep  is  due  to  a  high, 
sharp  shoulder  or  to  real  depth  of  chest.     When  the  hand  is 


Fig.  12 

between  the  legs,  the  breast  bone  should  be  firmly  grasped 
and  its  width  and  the  qtiantity  of  flesh  on  it  noted.  A  meaty 
breast  with  a  deep  groove  running  lengthwise  through  the 
middle  indicates  high  condition ;  a  poor,  bony  breast  indicates 
an  undesirable  condition. 

16.  The  last  item  to  be  considered  in  making  a  detailed 
examination  of  an  animal  is  its  wool.  This  should  receive 
careful  consideration  and  be  valued  from  the  points  of 
quantity,  quality,  and  condition.     The  quantity  of  the  wool 


§32 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


15 


is  influenced  most  by  the  length  and  density  of  the  fiber  over 
the  whole  animal.  The  quality  of  the  wool  is  judged  from 
its  fineness,  softness,  and  uniformity.  The  finest  and  densest 
wool  is  found  on  the  side  just  back  of  the  shoulder;  the 
coarsest  is  on  the  thigh;  and  the  least  dense  is  over  the  loin 
and  on  the  belly.  The  condition  of  the  wool  is  an  index  of 
the  condition  of  the  animal.  A  dry,  harsh  fleece  indicates 
a  lack  of  thrift  in  the  sheep.  The  wool  should  be  clean,  free 
from  foreign  matter,  and  show  a  bright  luster.     Short  fibers, 


Fig.  13 

a  tendency  of  fibers  to  collect  in  masses,  a  lack  of  density  and 
uniformity,  the  presence  of  kemp,  or  hair,  dullness,  harshness, 
and  the  coagulation  of  the  yolk  are  common  faults  in  fleeces, 
and  a  judge  should  watch  for  them  as  he  examines  the  wool. 
The  wool  should  be  parted  with  the  hands  in  a  flat  position 
against  the  wool  and  pressed  in  opposite  directions.  The 
ends  of  the  fingers  should  never  be  thrust  into  the  wool,  for 
they  muss  it.  The  length  and  density  of  the  wool  may  have 
been  noted  from  time  to  time  as  the  various  parts  of  the  sheep 


16 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AXD  BREEDING 


*  32 


were  examined,  but  these  qualities  should  now  be  studied 
in  detail. 

17.  One  position  in  examining  the  fleece  is  shown  in 
Fig.  14.  The  finest  wool  in  a  fleece  is  found  on  that  part  of 
the  body  where  the  opening  is  shown.  The  evenness  and  the 
fineness  of  the  crimp,  and  the  length,  fineness,  and  luster  of 


Fig.  14 

the  staple  should  be  carefully  examined  at  this  point.  The 
skin  exposed  by  the  parting  of  the  wool  should  be  pink. 
The  second  important  position  in  examining  a  fleece  is  shown 
in  Fig.  15.  The  coarsest  wool  on  the  body  is  found  a  few 
inches  below  the  place  where  the  wool  is  shown  parted  in  the 
illustration.  The  wool  over  this  part  of  the  body,  the  thigh, 
is  sometimes  very  coarse ;  the  crimp,  long  and  wavy ;  and  the 
wool  almost  resembles  hair.  All  tendency  toward  a  hair-like 
condition  of  the  wool  is  objectionable.     The  belly  of  a  sheep 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


17 


should  be  examined  to  see  whether  or  not  it  is  well  covered 
with  wool.  Some  judges  set  the  sheep  up  on  its  hindquarters 
to  examine  the  wool  on  the  belly;  other  judges  simply  pass 
their  hand  under  the  belly  to  examine  the  wool  there  when 
they  are  examining  the  breast  and  chest  of  the  sheep. 

18.     After  a  judge  has  thoroughly  examined  a  sheep  he 
should  form  a  conception  of  the  relation  of  the  various  parts 


Fig.  15 

as  he  has  found  them,  and  of  the  animal  as  a  whole.  If  there 
are  several  sheep  in  a  ring  to  be  judged,  the  one  that  most 
nearly  approaches  the  ideal  animal  of  the  breed  or  class  is 
given  first  rank  and  the  others  are  ranked  in  the  order  that 
they  approach  the  ideal  animal.  If  the  examination  has 
been  carefully  made  a  good  idea  will  have  been  obtained 
of  each  animal  judged.  The  ability  to  keep  the  impressions 
of  more  than  one  animal  in  mind  while  examining  others,  as 


IS  SHEEP  JUDGIXO  AXD  BREEDING  §32 


SCORE     CARD    FOR    MUTTON    TYPE     OF    SHEEP 

No.  or  name  of  animal 

General  Appearance  Perfect  Judge's 

Score  Score 

Weight:  score  according  to  age  and  breed 4  

Form:  straight  top  and  under  line;  deep,  broad,  low  set,  compact, 

symmetrical 10  

Quality:    hair  fine;  bone  fine  but  strong;  even  covering  of  firm  flesh; 

features  refined  but  not  delicate;  stylish 10  

Constitution:  chest  capacious:  brisket  well  developed;  flanks  deep; 

bone  strong;  movement  bold  and  vigorous H  i  

Condition:    thrifty;  skin   pink;   fleece  elastic;  well   fleshed,   but    not 

excessively  fat;  deep  covering  of  firm  flesh 5 

Disposition:  quiet  but  not  sluggish 2 

Color  and  markings:     According  to  breed 2 

Head   and   Neck 

Muzzle:  mouth  and  nostrils  large;  lips  thin 

Eyes:  full,  bright,  clear 

Face:  short,  according  to  breed 

Forehead:  broad,  full 

Ears:  texture,  fine;  size  and  form,  according  to  breed 

Neck:   thick',  short,  neatly  tapering  to  head;  throat  clean,  according 

to  breed 3  

FOREQUARTERS 

Shoulder:  covered  with  llesh;  compact;  smoothly  joined  with  neck 

and  body i  

Brisket:  well  developed;  breast  wide 1 , 

Fore   legs:    straight,    short,    set    well    apart;    pasterns   upright;    feet 

squarely  placed,  neither  close  nor  sprawling 2 

Body 

Ribs:  long,  well  sprung,  thickly  fleshed 3  

Back:  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 5 

Loin :  thick,  broad,  firm 5 

Flank:  full,  even  with  under  line 1  


Hindquarters 

Hips:    level,    smoothly    covered;    width    in    proportion    with    other 

parts • 1 

Rump:  long,  level,  wide  and  even  in  width;  not  covered  at  tail-head 

with  excessive  fat 3 

Thighs:  full,  fleshed  well  down  to  hock 2 

Twist:  deep,  plump,  firm,  indicating  fleshiness 5 

Hind  legs:  straight,  short,  set  well  apart;  bones  smooth,  strong, 
being  neither  course  nor  fine;  pasterns  upright;  feet  squarely 
placed;  neither  close  nor  sprawling 3 

Wool 

Quantity:  long,  dense,  even,  according  to  breed 5 

Quality:  structure  and  color  true;  fine,  soft,  even,  according  to  breed  5 

Condition:  strong,  bright,  clean,  slight  amount  of  yolk 4 

Total 100 


s<  32 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


19 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    WOOL    TYPE    OF    SIIEEP 

No.  or  name  of  animal 

^  .•  Perfect  Tudge's 

lreneral  appearance  _              j „ 

Score      Score  . 

Form:  level, deep,  stylish;  round  rather  than  square.  .  8         

Quality:  clean,  fine  bone;  silky  hair;  fine  skin <>          

Head  and  Neck 

Muzzle:  fine;  broad,  wrinkly  nose;  pure  white 1          

Eyes:  large,  clear,  placid . ." 1          

Face:  wrinkly,  covered  with  soft,  velvety  coat 1 

Forehead :  broad,  full 1          

Ears :  soft,  thick,  velvety 1 

Neck:  short,  muscular,  well  set  on  shoulders 1 

Forequarters 

Shoulder:  strong,  deep  and  broad '         ____ 

Brisket:  projecting  forwards;  breast  wide 1          

Legs:  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  shank   smooth  and 

fine 2          

Body 

Chest:  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution 10         

Back:  level,  long;  round  ribbed 4          

Loin:  wide,  level 4         

Flank:  low,  making  under  line  straight 2 

Hindquarters 

Hips:  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2         

Rump :  long,  level,  wide 4         

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  smooth,  fine.  ...  2         

Wool 
Quantity:  long,  dense,  even  covering,  especially  over 

crown,  cheek,  armpit,  hind  legs,  and  belly 15          

Quality:  fine  fiber;  crimp  close,  regular;  even  quality, 

including  tops  of  folds 15         

Condition:  bright,  lustrous,  sound,  pure,  soft;  even 

distribution  of  yolk,  with  even  surface  to  fleece.  15         

Total TOO 


20  SHEEP  JUDGING  AXD  BREEDING 

well  as  proficiency  in  handling  sheep  and  detecting  slight 
differences  quickly  will  be  obtained  by  practice. 

19.  Use  of  Score  Cards  in  Judging  of  Sheep. — As  an  aid 
to  beginners  in  the  judging  of  sheep,  a  score  card  prepared 
especially  for  sheep  judging  is  often  used. 

Two  score  cards  of  this  kind  are  shown  on  pages  IS 
and  19.  The  first  is  for  the  mutton  type  of  sheep  and  the 
second  is  for  the  wool  type.  The  difference  in  these  score 
cards  is  largely  in  the  number  of  points  allowed  for  certain 
items.  Thus,  the  total  number  of  points  allowed  for  wool 
in  the  score  card  for  the  mutton  type  of  sheep  is  only  1 4 ; 
and  in  the  score  card  for  the  wool  type  of  sheep  45  points  are 
allowed  for  wool. 

20.  Standard  Scale  of  Points  and  Standard  of  Excellence  as 
Aids  in  Judging  of  Sheep. — Most  of  the  associations  organized 
for  the  improvement  and  the  development  of  a  particular 
breed  of  sheep  issue  what  is  known  as  the  standard  scale  of 
points  or  as  the  standard  of  excellence  for  that  breed.  The 
standard  scale  of  points  indicates  the  relative  weight,  or  the 
number  of  points  that  the  association  desires  to  be  given  to 
the  different  parts  or  qualities  of  an  animal  of  the  breed, 
and  is  intended  to  be  a  guide  for  judges  and  breeders.  The 
standard  of  excellence  simply  gives  a  brief  statement  con- 
cerning the  various  parts  of  an  animal,  but  does  not  suggest 
the  number  of  points  to  be  given  to  each  part. 

Such  standard  scale  of  points  and  standards  of  excellence 
as  are  available  are  given  on  the  following  pages: 


§32            SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  21 

Standard  Scale   of   Points   for  the    Dblainb    Mkkino   Sheep   as 
Adopted  by  the  National    Dblainb  Mkkino 

Breeders'  Association  Points 

Constitution 10 

Heavy  around  the  heart (i 

Short,  heavy  neck li 

Good  dewlap ."> 

Broad  back s 

Well  sprung  ribs ."> 

Short  legs li 

Heavy  bone 8 

Small,  sharp  foot 1(1 

Length  of  staple,  1  year's  growth,  :>  inches 8 

Density  of  fleece s 

Darkish  cast  on  top ."> 

Opening  up  white ."> 

Good  flow  of  white  oil ."> 

Good  crimp  in  staple ."> 

Total 100 


Standard    Scale    of    Points    Recommended     by    the    American 
Suffolk  Flock  Registry   Association 

Pi  UNTS 

Head. — Hornless.  Face  black  and  long,  and  muzzle  moder- 
ately fine,  especially  in  ewes.  A  small  quantity  of  clean 
white  wool  on  the  forehead  is  not  objected  to.  Ears,  a 
medium  length,  black,  and  fine  texture.     Eyes,  bright  and 

full 25 

Xeck. — In  ewes,  of  moderate  length  and  well  set;  in  rams, 

stronger,  with  a  good  crest 5 

Shoulder. — Broad  and  oblique 5 

Chest. — Deep  and  wide 5 

Back  and  Loin. — Long,  level,  and  well  covered  with  meat 
and  muscle.      Tail  broad  and  well  set  up.      Ribs  long  and 

well  sprung,  with  a  full  flank 20 

Legs  and   Feet. — Straight  and  black,   with   fine  and   flat 
bone.      Wooled  to  knees  and  hocks;  clean  below.      Fore 
legs  set  well  apart.      Hind  legs  well  filled  with  mutton  .  .  .        20 
Belly  (also  Scrotum  of  Rams). — Well  covered  with  wool         5 
Fleece. — Moderately  short;  close,  fine  fiber,  without  tend- 
ency to  mat  or  felt  together,  and  well  defined,  that  is,  not 

shading  off  into  dark  wool  or  hair 10 

Skin. — Fine,  s  >ft.  and  pink  color   5 

Total 100 


22  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §32 

Standard  Scale  of  Points  for  the  Southdown  Sheep  as  Adopted 
by  the  American  Southdown  Breeders' 

Association  Points 

Head. — Medium  in  size  and  hornless,  fine,  carried  well  up, 
the  forehead  or  face  well  covered  with  wool,  especially 
between  the  ears  and  on  the  cheeks,  and  in  the  ewe  slightly 
dished 5 

Lips  and  Under  Jaw. — Fine  and  thin 1 

Ears. — Rather  small,  tolerably  wide  apart,  covered  with 
fine  hair  and  carried  with  a  lively  back-and-forth  move- 
ment   ■ 2 

Eyes. — Full  and  bright 3 

Face. — A  uniform  tint  of  brown,  or  gray,  or  mouse  color.  .  .  3 

Neck. — Short,  fine  at  the  head,  but  nicely  tapering,  and 

broad  and  straight  on  top  at  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,  smoothly  joining  the  neck 
with  the  back. 5 

Breast. — Wide,  deep,  and  projecting  well  forwards,    the 

fore  legs  standing  wide  apart 5 

Back   and   Loin. — Broad   and   straight   from   shoulders  to 

rump 7 

Ribs. — Well  arched,  extending  far  backwards,  the  last  pro- 
jecting more  than  the  others G 

Rump. — Broad,  square,  and  full,  with  tail  well  set  up 6 

Hips. — Wide,  with  little  space  between  them  and  last  ribs.  .  G 

Thighs. — Full  and  well  let  down  in  twist,  the  legs  standing 

well  apart G 

Limbs. — Short  and  fine  in  bone,  and  in  color  to  agree  with 

the  face 3 

Fore  Legs. — Well    wooled    and    carrying    mutton    to    the 

knees,  but  free  from  meat  below 2 

Hind  Legs. — Well  filled  with  mutton  and  wooled  to  the 

hocks,  neat  and  clean  below 2 

Belly. — Straight  and  covered  with  wool,  the  flank  extend- 
ing so  as  to  form  a  line  parallel  with  the  back  or  top  line ....      5 

Fleece. — Compact,  the  whole  body  well  covered  with  mod- 
erately long  and  close  wool  white  in  color,  carrying  some 
yolk 12 

Form. — Throughout  smooth  and  symmetrical,  with  no 
coarseness  in  any  part 9 

General  Appearance. — Spirited  and  attractive,  with  a 
determined  look,  a  proud  and  firm  step,  indicating  con- 
stitutional vigor  and  thorough  breeding s 

Total 100 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  23 


Standard    Scale    of    Points    for    Pure-Bred    Shropshire    Sheep 

Recorded  or  Eligible  to  Registry  in  the   American 

Shropshire   Registry  Association   Record 

Points 

General  Appearance. — Attractive,  indicating  breeding 
and  quality,  with  stylish  carriage  and  a  symmetrical 
form  covered  with  a  dense  fleece 25 

Constitution. — Robust,  as  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of 
chest,  strength,  and  formation  of  neck,  and  by  bold,  active 
movement 1 " 

Size. — In  breeding  condition  when  fully  matured,  rams 
should  weigh  not  less  than  from  180  to  225  pounds,  and 
ewes  not  less  than  from  125  to  170  pounds 10 

Wool  and  Skin. — Wool  of  good  length,  dense,  elastic  to 
touch,  medium  fine,  free  from  black  fiber,  slightly  crimped, 
with  evenness  of  texture  throughout;  scrotum  of  rams 
well  covered  with  wool.  Skin  light  cherry  color,  free  from 
dark  spots 15 

Body. — Well  proportioned,  with  shoulders  well  placed, 
fitting  smoothly  on  the  chest,  which  should  be  deep  and 
wide;  broad  and  straight  back;  thick  loins  well  covered 
with  firm  flesh;  hindquarters  well  finished;  twist  deep  and 
full 20 

Head  AND  Xeck. — Head  short,  broad  between  the  ears  and 
eyes,  bold  and  masculine  in  rams;  without  horns;  well 
covered  with  wool;  ears  short  and  erect;  eyes  bright;  color 
of  face  and  ears  dark  brown.  Xeck  of  medium  length, 
strong,  and  muscular,  especially  in  rams;  symmetrically 
joined  to  head  and  shoulders 1  ■> 

Legs. — Well  set  apart,  broad,  short,  straight;  color  dark 
brown,  and  well  wooled;  pastern  strong  and  upright 5 

Total 100 


243—15 


24  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  g  32 


Standard  Scale  of  Points  for  Oxford  Down  Sheep  as  Adopted 
by  the  American  Oxford  Down  Record  Association 

Breed  Type   for  Animals  Points 

Form  of  a  good  general  appearance,  made  by  a  well-balanced 
conformation,  free  from  coarseness  in  any  part,  and  show- 

ing  good  style  both  at  rest  and  in  motion 15 

Head  of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the  ears  and 
between  the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with  wool  over  poll 
and  down  to  the  eyes.  Color  of  face  an  even  dark  gray  or 
brown,  either  with  or  without  gray  spot  on  tip  of  nose.  ...  6 

When  fully  matured  and  in  good  condition  rams  should 
weight  from  250  to  350  pounds;  ewes  from   ISO  to  275 

pounds 5 

Ears  medium  size,  not  too  thick,  and  of  an  even  brown  or 

dark-gray  color 2 

Legs  short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  of  even  dark-gray  or 
brown  color,  placed  squarely  under  the  body  and  well 

apart 2 

Constitution 

Large  around  the  heart  and  wide  and  full  in  the  chest 10 

The  movement  must  be  bold  and  vigorous 5 

Eyes  bold,  prominent,  and  bright 4 

Skin  bright  pink  in  color 3 

Xeck  strong  and  muscular  in  rams  and  well  set  on  in  both 

sexes 3 

Mutton  Form  and  Quality 
Wide  and  straight  on  top  of  shoulders," back,  loin,  and  rump, 

from  base  of  neck  to  tail 15 

Full  shoulders,  and  thighs  well  meated  both  inside  and  out- 
side    5 

Flanks  well  filled  and  strong  so  as  to  make  the  lower  lines  of 
the  body  as  straight  as  possible,  and  side  lines  straight  or 

rather  full 4 

The  whole  carcass  evenly  covered  with  good,  well  marbled 

meat 6 

Wool 
Fleece  of  moderate  length,  close  and  of  even  quality,  cover- 
ing the  whole  carcass  well  and  free  from  black  patches 

upon  the  body,  neck,  or  head 15 

Total 100 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  25 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Standard  Scale  of  Points  for  the 

Hampshire   Down  Sheep  as  Adopted  by  the  Hampshire 

Down  Breeders'  Association  of  America 

Standard  of  Excellence 

Head  and  Legs 

Head. — Moderately  large,  but  not  coarse;  well  covered  with  wool 

on  Eorehead  and  checks. 
Nostrils. — Wide 

Color. — Head  and  legs  dark  brown  or  black. 
Eyes. — Prominent  and  lustrous. 
Ears. — Moderately  long  and  thin,  and  of  dark  brown  or  black 

color. 
Legs. — Well  under  outside  of  body,  straight,  with  good  size  of 

bone;  black. 

Neck,  Shoulders,  and  Chest 
Neck. — A  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  head,  without  any 

hollow  in  front  of  shoulders;  set  high  up  on  body. 
Shoulders. — Sloping,  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line  of  back 

and  neck. 
Chest. — Deep  and  full  in  the  heart  place,  with  breast  prominent 

and  full. 

Body 
Back.— Straight,  with  full  spring  of  rib. 

Loin. — Wide  and  straight,  without  depression  in  front  of  hips. 
Hindquarters. — Long  from  hips  to  rump,  without  sloping,  and 

deep    in   thigh.      Broad   In    hips   and   rump,    with    lull    hams 

Inside  of  thigh  full. 

Standard  Scale  of  Points 

Points 
Head,  Legs  and  Feet. — Head,  size  and  shape,  5;  ears  and 

eyes,  3;  color,  5;  legs  and  feet,  2 15 

Neck,  Shoulders,  and  Breast. — Neck,  .">;  shoulders;   10; 

chest  and  breast,  15 30 

Body. — Back  and  loins,  15;  rib,  5 20 

Hindquarters. — Length,  10;  width,  10;  twist,  5 25 

Wool. — Forehead   and   cheeks,    2;   belly,    well    covered,    3; 

quality,  5 10 

Total 100 


26  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §  32 


Standard  Scale  of  Points  for  the  Dorset  Sheep  as  Adopted  by 
the  Continental  Dorset  Club 

Points 
Head. — Neat;  face  white;  nostrils  large;  well  covered  on 

crown  and  under  jaws  with  wool 5 

Horns. — Small    and    gracefully    curving    forwards    rather 

close  to  jaw 5 

Eyes. — Prominent  and  bright 2 

Ears. — Medium  size,  covered  with  short  white  hair "2 

Neck. — Short,    symmetrical,    strongly    set    on    shoulders, 

gradually  tapering  to  junction  of  head 5 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,  at  the  top  joining  the  neck 

and  chine  with  no  depression  at  either  side  (important) .  .         15 

Brisket. — Wide  and  full  forward;  chest  full  and  deep 8 

Fore  Flank. — Quite  full,  showing  little  depression  behind 

shoulder 8 

Back  and  Loin. — Wide  and  straight,  from  which  ribs  should 

spring  with  a  fine,  circular  arch 10 

Leg  of  Mutton. — Wide  and  full,  with  mutton  extending 

down  to  hocks 10 

Belly. — Straight  on  under  line ' 3 

Fleece. — Medium    grade,    of    even    quality,    presenting    a 

smooth  surface  and  extending  over  belly  and  well  down 

on  legs 12 

General    Conformation. — Of    the    mutton    type;    body 

moderately  long;  short,  stout  legs,  placed  squarely  under 

body;  skin  pink;  appearance  attractive 15 

Total 100 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  27 

Standard  Scale  ok  Points  por  thb  Cheviot  Sheep  as  Adopted 

by  the  American  Cheviot  Sheep  Society 

Points 

General  Conformation  and  Quality. — Deep  and  full  of 
breast  and  large  through  chest.  Hark  wide  and  straight, 
with  well  sprung;  deep  ribs.  Legs  well  placed  and  leg  of 
mutton  full  and  thick.  Body  well  fleshed;  skin  pink, 
with  no  blue  or  dark  coloring;  fleece  compact  and  medium 
fine;  bone  strong  and  fine;  general  appearance  graceful, 
symmetrical,  active 20 

Size. — In  good  flesh  when  fully  matured  a  24-months-old 
ram  should  weigh  not  less  than  225  pounds,  and  a  ewe 
not  less  than  150  pounds 10 

Head. — Should  be  medium  short  and  broad,  with  ample 
breadth  between  the  eyes.  Ears  should  be  of  medium 
length  and  usually  erect  when  at  repose.  Head  povered 
with  clear  white  hairs,  extending  from  nostrils  to  back 
of  poll.  Ridge  of  head  from  between  eyes  to  nostrils 
straight  or  slightly  arched  in  females  and  more  strongly 
arched  or  Roman  in  rams.     Color  of  tip  of  nose  black ....        15 

Body. — Well  proportioned,  having  notable  depth,  with 
thickness  on  top  and  at  flanks.  Loins  should  be  very 
broad  and  thick;  shoulders  should  set  well  back  and  be 
smoothly  covered,  and  crops  be  full  and  well  arched. 
The  rump  should  be  long,  broad,  and  level 'JO 

Legs. — Should  be  short,  well  set  apart,  and  covered  with 
clean,  white  hair,  with  no  wool  below  hocks  and  knees. 
The  hind  legs  should  be  flat  and  deep  below  the  hocks. 
Pasterns  should  be  strong  and  not  show  weakness,  sup- 
porting the  body  well •. 10 

Feet. — Symmetrical,  squarely  placed  when  in  repose,  and 

black  in  color 5 

Fleece. — Should  cover  the  body  completely  to  behind  the 
poll  and  ears  and  down  to  knees  and  hocks.  Under  part 
of  the  body  should  be  well  covered.  On  mature  animals 
should  be  not  less  than  3  inches  long  for  annual  growth 
and  be  compact  and  of  medium-wool  class.  Rams  should 
shear  at  least  12  pounds  and  ewes  8  pounds  when  in  mature 

form  to  be  desirable  representatives  of  the  breed 20 

Total pio 

Objections:  Scurs  on  the  head,  Mack  spots  on  the  head,  flesh- 
colored  or  spotted  skin  about  the  nostrils,  hair  about  the  thighs 
or  kemp  on  the  body,  reddish  or  sandy  hair  on  head  or  legs, 
lack  of  wool  on  under  part  of  body. 
Disqualifications:  All  male  lambs  having  scurs  or  horns  exceeding 
1  inch  in  length,  shall  be  ineligible  to  registration. 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDLV,  §32 


Standard  Scale  of  Points   for  Lincoln    Sheep  as  Adopted  by 
the   National  Lincoln  Sheep  Breeders'   Association 

Points 

Constitution. — Body  deep,  back  wide  and  straight;  wide 
and  full  in  the  thigh;  bright,  large  eyes;  skin  soft  and  of  a 
pink  color 25 

Size. — Matured  rams  not  less  than  250  pounds  when  in  good 

condition.      Matured  ewes  not  less  than  200  pounds  ....         10 

Appearance. — Good  carriage  and  symmetry  of  form 10 

Body.— Well  proportioned;  good  bone  and  length;  broad 
hindquarters;  legs  standing  well  apart;  breast  wide  and 
deep 15 

Head. — Should  be  covered  with  wool  to  the  ears;  tuft  on 
forehead;  eyes  expressive;  ears  fair  length;  dotted  or 
mottled  in  color 10 

Neck. — Medium  length;  good  muscle;  well  set  on  body.  ...  5 

Legs. — Broad  and  set  well  apart;  good  shape;  color  white, 
but  some  black  spots  do  not  disqualify;  wooled  to  the 
knees 10 

Fleece. — Of  even  length  and  quality  over  body;  not  less 

than  8  inches  long  for  1  year's  growth 10 

Quality  of  Wool. — Rather  fine,  long  wool;  strong,  lustrous 

fiber;  no  tendency  to  cot 5 

Total 100 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND   BREEDING  29 


Standard  Scale  of  Points  for  Cotswold  Ewi;   as  Adopted    by 
the  American  Cotswold  Association- 
Points 

Head. — Moderately  fine;  broad  between  the  eyes  and  nos- 
trils, but  without  a  short,  thick  appearance,  and  well 
covered  on  crown  with  long,  lustrous  wool 8 

Face. — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 

dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils. — Wide  and  expanded.     Nose  dark 1 

Eyes. — Prominent,  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears. — Broad,   long,   moderately   thin,   and  covered    with 

short  hair 4 

Collar. — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually 
all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.  The  neck 
should  be  fine  and  graceful,  and  free  from  coarse  and  loose 
skin 5 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  join  at 
the  top  so  gradually  to  the  collar  and  chine,  as  not  to 
leave  the  least  hollow  in  either  place 8 

Fore  Legs. — The  mutton  on  the  fore  legs  should  come 
quite  to  the  knee.  Legs  upright,  with  heavy  bone,  clear 
from  superfluous  skin,  covered  with  white  or  white  and 
gray  wool  to  fetlock 4 

Breast. — Broad  and  well   forward,   keeping   the   fore   legs 

wide  apart.     Girth,  or  chest,  full  and  dee]) 10 

Fore  Flank. — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 
shoulder 4 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  flat,  and  straight,  from  which  the 

ribs  must  spring  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly. — Straight  on  under  line 5 

Hindquarters. — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  down  to  the 
hock 8 

Hock. — Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist. — Deep,   wide,   and   full,   which   will   keep   the   hind 

legs  wide  apart  and  upright 5 

Fleece. — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long, 

lustrous  wool 18 

Total 100 


30  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §32 


Standard  Scale  of  Points  for  Cotswold    Ram   as  Adopted  by 
the  American  Cotswold  Association 

Points 

Head. — Xot  too  fine,  moderately  small,  and  broad  between 
the  eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without  a  short,  thick  appear- 
ance, and  in  young  animals  well  covered  on  crown  with 
long,  lustrous  wool 8 

Face. — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 

dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils. — Wide  and  expanded;  nose  dark 1 

Eyes. — Prominent,  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears. — Broad,   long,   moderately   thin,    and   covered   with 

short  hair 4 

Collar. — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually 
all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.  The  neck 
should  be  short,  thick,  and  strong,  indicating  constitu- 
tional vigor,  and  should  be  free  from  coarse  and  loose  skin         6 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  join  at 
the  top  so  gradually  to  the  collar  and  chine  as  not  to  leave 
the  least  hollow  in  either  place 8 

Fore  Legs. — The  mutton  on  the  fore  legs  should  come  quite 
to  the  knee.  Legs  upright  with  heavy  bone,  clear  from 
superfluous  skin,  and  covered  with  white  or  white  and 
gray  wool  to  the  fetlock 4 

Breast. — Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  fore  legs 
wide  apart.     Girth,  or  chest,  full  and  deep 10 

Fore  Flank. — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 
shoulder 5 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  flat,  and  straight,  from  which  the 
ribs  must  spring  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly. — Straight  on  under  line 3 

Hindquarters. — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down 
to  the  hock 8 

Hock. — Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist. — Deep,  wide,  and  full,  which  will  keep  the  hind  legs 
wide  apart  and  upright 5 

Fleece. — The   whole  body  should    be  covered  with  long, 

lustrous  wool 18 

Total 100 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND   BREEDING  31 


SHEEP    BREEDING 

21.  The  prime  object  in  the  breeding  of  sheep  should  be 
to  have  the  majority  of  the  offspring  of  a  flock  superior  to 
the  majority  of  the  ewes  of  the  flock.  In  order  that  this 
object  may  be  gained,  the  owner  of  a  flock  of  sheep,  if  it  is 
a  grade  flock,  must  first  decide  what  breed  of  sheep  is  to  be 
used  to  improve  the  flock  and  then  select  a  good  pure-bred 
ram  of  the  desired  breed,  and  one  that  is  superior  to  the 
average  ewe  of  the  flock.  If  the  ewes  of  the  foundation  flock 
are  pure  bred,  care  should  be  taken  to  use  a  superior  ram. 
The  use  of  a  ram  of  one  breed  one  year  and  one  of  another 
breed  the  next  year  on  the  same  ewes  and  on  their  ewe  lambs 
will  seldom  result  in  improvement  of  the  offspring.  The 
resulting  flock  will  be  utterly  lacking  in  uniformity,  especially 
in  the  quality  and  density  of  the  fleece.  The  body  will  be 
unevenly  covered,  the  length  of  the  staple  on  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  will  vary,  and  the  wool  will  have  a  tendency 
to  become  hairy.  However,  an  inferior  flock  may  be  devel- 
oped into  an  exceedingly  uniform  and  superior  breeding  flock 
in  4  or  5  years  if  the  better  yearling  ewe  lambs  are  selected 
to  replace  the  poorer  old  ewes  each  year  and  a  new  superior 
ram  of  the  same  breed  secured  to  breed  to  them. 

22.  Age  of  Breeding  Sheep. — When  about  2  years  of  age, 
ewes  of  most  breeds  and  grades  of  sheep  should  drop  their 
first  lambs.  If  they  are  properly  fed  and  cared  for,  the  ewes 
of  the  fine-wool  breeds  should  be  useful  in  the  flock  until 
they  are  10  years  old;  ewes  of  the  medium  and  coarse-wool 
breeds  should  be  useful  until  they  are  about  7  years  old. 
Rams  are  in  their  prime  breeding  condition  when  3  and 
4  years  of  age,  although  yearling  rams  may  be  used  on  from 
twenty  to  forty  ewes  if  allowed  to  serve  only  one  or,  at 
the  most,  two  each  night  and  morning  until  each  ewe  of  the 
flock  has  been  served.     A  vigorous  ram,  if  he  is  not  over- 


32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §32 

worked  and  is  well  fed  and  cared  for,  should  continue  to  be 
useful  until  he  is  6  years  old.  In  fact,  there  is  a  decided 
advantage  in  using  a  ram  that  has  been  tried  and  whose 
offspring  have  proved  him  to  be  a  desirable  sire. 

23.  Condition  of  Breeding  Sheep. — At  breeding  time,  the 
ewes  and  the  ram  should  be  in  good  condition  but  not  fat; 
they  should  be  thrifty  and  vigorous,  and  if  the  regular 
pastures  are  poor  and  no  other  green  forage  crop  is  available 
at  this  time,  a  light  grain  ration  of  oats  and  corn  should  be 
given  to  them.  After  the  breeding  season  is  over  the  ewes 
should  not  be  allowed  to  run  down  in  flesh  nor  should  they 
be  fattened  before  the  lambs  are  dropped.  After  the  ewes 
have  dropped  their  lambs,  however,  a  liberal  fattening  ration 
may  be  fed. 

Before  the  ewes  are  bred,  the  shepherd  should  go  over  the 
flock  carefully  and  remove  from  it  all  ewes  known  to  have 
poor  udders,  or  to  have  been  unable  to  raise  a  lamb  the 
previous  year.  Also  all  those  ewes  that  show  a  lack  of  thrift 
due  to  a  loss  of  teeth,  which  will  be  almost  sure  to  cause  them 
difficulty  in  maintaining  themselves  and  raising  lambs,  and 
those  with  some  defect  in  conformation  or  with  light,  uneven, 
and  kempy  fleeces,  showing  a  lack  of  covering  on  belly  and 
legs,  should  not  be  bred. 

24.  Time  for  the  Breeding  of  Ewes. — The  time  for  the 
breeding  of  ewes  will  depend  largely  on  environment  and  the 
ideas  of  the  flockmaster.  With  farm  flocks,  where  there  are 
proper  facilities  to  care  for  the  lambs,  it  is  well  to  have  the 
lambs  come  late  in  January  and  the  first  part  of  February, 
as  early  lambs,  as  a  rule,  grow  rapidly  and  escape  many 
troubles  to  which  later  lambs  are  exposed.  For  instance, 
there  is  less  danger  of  infection  from  internal  parasites  if 
lambs  are  2  months  old  before  the  ewes  are  turned  on  pasture. 
The  ewes  are  benefited  by  early  lambing,  because  the  lambs 
are  weaned  earlier  and  the  ewes  are  given  a  better  chance  to 
recuperate  and  put  on  flesh  and  thus  be  prepared  for  breeding 
again  or,  if  culled  out  of  the  flock,  they  may  be  more  readily 
fattened  for  market  than  if  the  lambs  were  dropped  late. 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  33 

On  the  range,  however,  without  shelter  to  protect  them,  the 
season  should  be  pretty  well  advanced  and  the  grazing  good 
before  the  lambs  are  dropped.  The  ewes  will  be  better  able 
to  care  for  the  lambs  then,  than  if  the  feed  is  scanty  and  the 
nights  are  cold. 

Considering  5  months  as  the  period  of  gestation,  although 
the  time  may  vary  from  140  to  154  days,  a  ewe  bred  on  the 
first  of  October  will  drop  her  lamb  the  last  of  February  or  the 
first  of  March,  a  very  good  time  on  the  farms  of  the  United 
States  north  of  the  Ohio  River  and  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  But  a  good  many  flockmasters  prefer  to  breed  their 
ewes  about  the  middle  of  September,  so  as  to  have  the  lambs 
come  about  the  middle  of  February.  Still  others  prefer  to 
have  them  come  about  the  first  of  February,  especially  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  section  mentioned  or  south  of  it.  These 
early  lambs  will  be  strong  and  well  grown  when  the  grass  of 
pastures  has  made  a  good  start  and  the  sod  is  sufficiently 
firmed  for  the  sheep  to  be  turned  on  the  pasture.  On  the 
ranges  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  breeding 
may  be  deferred  to  the  first  week  in  November,  which  will 
bring  the  lambs  about  the  last  week  in  March  or  the  first 
week  in  April.  This  may  be  too  late  in  some  southern 
localities  and  too  early  in  the  more  northern  sections,  where 
grass  is  slow  in  starting  and  late  storms  are  apt  to  occur. 
Each  flockmaster  under  these  differing  conditions,  must 
decide  for  himself  as  to  the  proper  time  for  breeding  his  ewes. 

25.  Breeding  of  Sheep. — On  farms  where  care  is  to  be 
given  to  the  breeding  of  the  ewes  and  where  the  time  and 
labor  will  allow,  the  ewes  should  be  brought  to  the  ram  in 
the  early  morning  and  again  in  the  evening.  The  ram  is 
then  placed  with  the  flock  of  ewes,  which  should  not  number 
over  fifty  ewes  for  a  mature  ram.  An  attendant  should 
carefully  note  the  ewes  that  are  in  heat  and  as  soon  as  the 
ram  serves  them  they  should  be  removed  from  the  flock  for 
a  few  days.  A  ewe  should  not  be  served  more  than  once 
during  one  period  of  heat,  which  lasts  from  1  to  3  days  and 
recurs  at  intervals  of  from   15  to  30  days.     To  avoid  the 


34  SHEEP  JUDGING   AND   BREEDING  §32 

possibility  of  failure  to  identify  the  ewes  that  the  ram  serves, 
they  should  be  marked  with  a  daub  of  paint,  or  the  ram 
should  be  marked  between  the  fore  legs  with  paint  that  will 
rub  off  easily  and  mark  the  rump  of  each  ewe  as  he  serves 
her.  The  paint  used  for  this  purpose  should,  of  course,  be 
of  such  a  nature  that  will  not  in  any  way  injure  the  wool  and 
will  completely  wash  out  of  the  fleece.  Dry  lampblack, 
red  lead,  and  plumbers'  chalk  are  good  materials  for  this 
purpose.  If  more  than  fifty  ewes  are  to  be  served  more  than 
one  ram  should  be  used. 

26.  On  farms  where  high-priced,  pure-bred  sheep  are 
raised  it  is  often  desirable  to  use  a  very  valuable  ram  or  one 
that  has  been  highly  fitted  for  exhibition  purposes,  and  when 
it  is  desired  to  save  his  energy  as  much  as  possible,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  use  a  cheaper  ram  to  locate  the  ewes  that  are  in 
heat  and- are  willing  to  be  served.  The  ram  used  to  find  the 
ewes  is  called  a  teaser,  and  he  must  have  a  piece  of  canvas 
placed  securely  on  the  under  side  of  his  body  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  will  prevent  him  from  serving  a  ewe.  When  he  finds 
a  ewe  that  is  willing  to  be  served  she  is  removed  from  the 
flock  and  served  by  the  more  valuable  ram. 

A  ram  may  be  allowed  to  run  with  a  flock  of  ewes  during 
the  breeding  season,  but  the  results  of  such  a  method  of 
breeding  are  never  so  satisfactory  as  when  the  ram  is  allowed 
with  the  flock  for  a  short  time  only,  morning  and  evening, 
or  when  he  is  left  with  the  ewes  overnight.  However,  it 
requires  less  time  and  labor  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd  when 
the  ram  is  allowed  to  run  with  the  ewes  continuously.  In 
this  case,  more  than  thirty  or  forty  ewes  should  not  be  allowed 
to  each  mature  ram. 

On  ranges  where  flocks  of  thousands  of  sheep  are  kept, 
it  would,  of  course,  be  impracticable  to  handle  the  ewes  and 
rams  during  the  breeding  season  in  the  same  way  as  on  farms 
where  only  a  small  number  of  sheep  are  kept.  With  the 
large  flocks,  one  ram  for  about  forty  ewes,  or  twenty-five 
rams  per  one  thousand  ewes,  are  turned  with  the  ewes  at  the 
approach  of  the  breeding  season  and  allowed  to  remain  with 


30  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §  32 

them  until  the  season  has  passed.     The  rams  should  be  pure 
bred,  of  the  same  breed,  and  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible. 

27.  Keeping  of  Breeding  Records. — It  is  advisable  for  a 
breeder  of  pure-bred  sheep  and,  in  fact,  for  any  one  endeavor- 
ing to  improve  a  flock  of  sheep,  to  purchase  a  sheep-breeding 
record  book.  Such  books  may  be  secured  from  the  sheep- 
breeding  associations  or  from  breeders'  supply  houses.  The 
form  shown  in  Fig.  10,  with  the  blanks  filled  in,  indicates  the 
information  of  which  a  breeder  should  keep  a  record.  Such 
a  form  can  be  easily  copied  in  an  ordinary  blank  book  if  the 
breeder  does  not  care  to  purchase  a  book  especially  for  this 
purpose. 

All  the  breeding  ewes  should  bear  ear  marks  as  described 
elsewhere,  by  which  they  may  be  identified.  As  each  ewe 
is  bred  and  removed  from  the  flock,  her  number,  the  date  of 
service,  and  the  name  and  number  of  the  ram  to  which  she 
was  bred  should  be  put  down  in  a  notebook  and  later  trans- 
ferred to  a  permanent  record  book.  From  these  data  and 
a  gestation  table  for  sheep,  a  copy  of  which  is  shown  in 
Table  I,  the  date  on  which  the  ewe  may  be  expected  to  give 
birth  to  a  lamb  may  be  obtained.  This  date  should  then 
be  set  down  in  the  proper  column.  The  other  data  called 
for  by  the  form  should  be  set  down  in  the  permanent  record 
as  soon  as  the  information  is  available. 

In  case  the  ewes  have  no  ear  marks  for  identification,  they 
should  be  numbered  with  paint  or  marking  fluid  that  is 
guaranteed  not  to  harm  the  wool  and  will  wash  out  completely 
when  the  wool  is  scoured.  The  numbers  may  be  made  on  the 
side  of  the  ewes  with  a  stiff  paint  brush  or  with  large  wooden 
or  metal  stencils. 


§32  SHEEP  JUDCxING  AND  BREEDING 


37 


TABLE    I 

GESTATION  TABLE  FOR  SHEEP 


Date  of 
Breeding 

Due  to 

Lamb 

1 

Date  of 
1    Breeding 

Feb.     1 

Due  to 
Lamb 

June  27 

il 

Date  of 

|    Breeding 

Due  to 
Lamb 

Jan.      i 

May   27 

•Mar.      1 

July  25 

2 

28 

2 

28 

2 

26 

3 

29 

3 

29 

3 

27 

4 

3o 

4 

30 

4 

28 

5 

3i 

5 

July     1 

5 

29 

6 

June     i 

6 

2 

6 

3° 

7 

2 

7 

3 

7 

3i 

8 

3 

8 

4 

8 

Aug.     1 

9 

4 

9 

5 

9 

2 

IO 

5 

10 

6 

10 

3 
4 

1 1 

6 

1 1 

7 

1  1 

12 

7 

12 

8 

12 

5 

*3 

8 

r3 

9 

t3 

6 

M 

9 

'4 

10 

'4 

7 

IS 

10 

l5 

1 1 

'5 

8 

16 

1 1 

16 

12 

[6 

9 

17 

12 

17 

J3 

'7 

10 

18 

13 

18 

14 

18 

1 1 

19 

14 

19  1 

*5 

19 

12 

20 

*5 

20 

16 

20 

13 

21 

16 

21 

17 

21 

14 

22 

J7 

22 

18 

22 

15 

23 

18 

23 

J9 

23 

16 

24 

19 

24 

20 

24 

17 

25 

20 

25 

21 

25 

18 

26 

21 

26 

22 

26 

J9 

27 

22 

27 

23 

27 

20 

28 

23 

28 

24 

28 

21 

29 

24  ! 

29 

22 

30 

25 

30 

23 

31   1 

l 

26  : 

li 

1 

3i 

1 

24 

SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


TABLE    1— (Continued) 


Date  of 

Due  to 

Date  of 

T 

Due  to  i 

Date  of 

Due  to 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Apr.  i 

Aug.  25 

May  1 

Sept.  24 

June  1 

Oct.  25 

2 

26 

2 

25 

2 

26 

3 

27 

3 

26 

27 

4 

28 

4 

-7 

4 

28 

: 

29 

: 

28 

; 

29 

6 

30 

6 

29 

6 

30 

: 

31 

7 

30 

7 

3i 

8 

Sept.  1 

8 

Oct.   1 

8 

Nov.  1 

9 

2 

9 

2 

9 

2 

IO 

3 

10 

3 

10 

3 

1 1 

4 

1 1 

4 

11 

4 

I  2 

5 

12 

: 

12' 

5 

13 

6 

13 

6 

13 

6 

M 

7 

M 

7 

14 

7 

is 

S 

'5 

- 

iS 

8 

16 

9 

16 

9 

16 

9 

l7 

10 

*7 

10 

l7 

10 

18 

11 

18 

1 1 

18 

1 1 

!9 

12 

19 

12 

19 

12 

20 

• 

20 

13 

20 

13 

21 

14 

21 

14 

21 

M 

15 

22 

*5 

22 

15 

23 

16 

23 

16 

23 

16 

24 

17 

24 

17 

24 

l7 

25 

18 

25 

18 

25 

18 

26 

19 

26 

19 

26 

19 

27 

20 

27 

20 

27 

20 

28 

21 

28 

21 

28 

21 

29 

22 

29 

22 

29 

22 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

;i 

24 

§  32 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


39 


TABLE   I— (Continued) 


Date  nf 

Due  to 

Date  of 

Due  to 

Date  of 

Due  to 

Breeding 

Lam!) 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Breeding 

Lamb 

July  i 

Nov.  24 

Aug.  1 

Dec.  25 

Sept.   1 

Jan.  25 

2 

25 

2 

26 

2 

26 

3 

26 

3 

27 

3 

27 

4 

27 

4 

28 

4 

28 

5 

28 

5 

29 

5 

29 

6 

29 

6 

3° 

6 

30 

7 

3° 

7 

3i 

7 

3i 

8 

Dec.  1 

8 

Jan.  1 

8 

Feb.  1 

9 

2 

9 

2 

9 

2 

IO 

3 

10 

3 

10 

3 

1 1 

4 

11 

4 

1 1 

4 

12 

5 

12 

5 

12 

5 

13 

6 

l3 

6 

13 

6 

14 

7 

14 

7 

14 

7 

15 

8 

15 

8 

*5 

8 

16 

9 

16 

9 

16 

9 

17 

10 

17 

10 

17 

10 

18 

11 

18 

11 

18 

1 1 

19 

12 

19 

12 

*9 

12 

20 

l3 

20 

13 

20 

13 

21 

14 

21 

14 

21 

14 

22 

J5 

22 

J5 

22 

15 

23 

16 

23 

16 

23 

16 

24 

17 

24 

17 

24 

17 

25 

18 

25 

18 

25 

18 

26 

19 

26 

19 

26 

19 

27 

20 

27 

20 

27 

20 

28 

21 

28 

21 

28 

21 

29 

22 

29 

22 

29 

22 

30 

23 

30 

23 

30 

23 

31 

24 

3i 

24 

243—16 


II) 


SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING 


S  32 


TABLE    I— {Continued) 


Date  of 

Due  to 

Date  of 

Due  to 

Date  of 

Due  to 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Breeding 

Lamb 

Oct.  I 

Feb.  24 

Nov.  1 

Mar.  27 

Dec.  1 

Apr.  26 

2 

25 

2 

28 

2 

27 

3 

26 

3 

29 

3 

28 

4 

27 

4 

30 

4 

29 

5 

28 

5 

31 

5 

30 

6 

Mar.  1 

6 

Apr.  1 

6 

May  1 

7 

2 

7 

2 

7 

2 

8 

3 

8 

3 

8 

3 

9 

4 

9 

4 

9 

4 

IO 

5 

10 

s 

10 

5 

1 1 

6 

1 1 

6 

1 1 

6 

12 

7 

12 

7 

12 

7 

13 

8 

J3 

8 

13 

8 

14 

9 

14 

9 

14 

9 

l5 

10 

15 

10 

IS 

10 

16 

11 

16 

1 1 

16 

1 1 

17 

12 

'7 

12 

17 

12 

18 

13 

18 

13 

18 

13 

19 

14 

19 

14 

19 

14 

20 

iS 

20 

iS 

20 

15 

21 

16 

21 

16 

21 

16 

22 

17 

22 

17 

22 

17 

23 

18 

23 

18 

23 

18 

24 

19 

24 

19 

24 

19 

25 

20 

25 

20 

25 

20 

26 

21 

26 

21 

26 

21 

27 

22 

27 

22 

27 

22 

28 

23 

28 

23 

28 

23 

29 

24 

29 

24 

29 

24 

30 

25 

3° 

25 

30 

25 

3i 

26 

31 

26 

Form  of  Entry  for  American  Bred  Cotswolds  in  American  Cotswold  Registry  Association 

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42  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §  32 

28.  Recording  Pure-Bred  Sheep  With  Sheep  Breeders' 
Associations. — Each  sheep  breeders'  association  will  make 
a  record  of  the  pedigrees  and  of  the  transfers  of  ownership  of 
pure-bred  sheep  of  the  breed  that  the  association  represents, 
on  proper  application  of  the  owner  and  the  payment  of  a 
small  fee.  It  is  desirable  that  the  producer  of  pure-bred 
sheep  should  have  his  sheep  registered  and  have  proof  of 
such  registration  to  deliver  to  the  purchaser  of  his  stock. 
Such  stock  usually  commands  higher  prices  than  non-regis- 
tered pure-bred  sheep.  On  application,  the  different  sheep 
breeders'  associations  will  supply  breeders  of  sheep  eligible 
to  registry  in  the  association  with  standard  blank  forms 
commonly  known  as  applications  for  registry.  The  appli- 
cations for  registry  in  several  different  associations  are  shown 
in  Fig.  17.  Such  forms  provide  for  a  description  of  each 
sheep,  which  usually  consists  in  giving  the  name  or  number 
of  the  animal,  the  sex,  the  identification  marks — Lthat  is,  the 
ear  tag  number  and  initials  of  the  breeder — the  date  of  birth, 
the  name  and  number  of  sire  and  dam,  and  the  name  and 
address  of  the  breeder  and  present  owner.  When  the  forms 
are  properly  filled  out  and  accompanied  by  the  necessary 
fee  of  a  few  cents,  they  are  presented  to  the  secretary  of  the 
association,  who  records  the  data  in  the  books  of  the  asso- 
ciation and  fills  out  another  form  known  as  a  certificate  of 
registry  and  sends  it  to  the  person  making  the  application. 
Certificates  of  registry  of  several  of  the  sheep  breeders' 
associations  are  shown  in  Fig.  18.  These  certificates  simply 
certify  that  the  animal  described  in  the  application  for 
registry  has  been  admitted  to  registry. 

If  a  pure-bred  registered  sheep  is  sold,  the  seller  notifies 
the  secretary  of  the  proper  association  of  such  transfer  of 
ownership  by  sending  him  a  form  for  this  purpose.  The 
secretary,  after  recording  the  transfer  on  the  books  of  the 
association,  sends  a  certificate  of  transfer  to  the  purchaser 
of  the  animal.  Specimens  of  forms  of  application  for  and 
certificates  of  transfer  from  different  associations  are  shown 
in  Fig.  19. 


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II 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  45 

29.  Signs  of  Pregnancy  in  Ewes.— About  the  only  prac- 
ticable way  to  judge  whether  or  not  a  ewe  is  in  lamb  is  to  note 
her  behavior  to  the  ram  when  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  for 
her  to  come  in  heat  after  having  been  served.  If  she  refuses 
to  take  the  ram  at  such  periods  for  two  consecutive  times 
it  is  reasonably  certain  that  she  is  safe  in  lamb. 

30.  Signs  of  Approaching  Parturition. — The  approach  of 
parturition  with  the  ewe  is  often  difficult  to  detect.  A  ewe 
about  to  lamb  will  usually  become  restless,  will  separate 
herself  from  the  flock,  frequently  retiring  to  a  more  or  less 

,  secluded  spot  if  such  is  accessible.  As  the  time  for  parturition 
draws  near  she  will  alternately  lie  down  and  get  up  at  intervals 
until  labor  pains  actually  begin. 

31.  Assisting  the  Ewe  in  Parturition. — Usually  there  is  no 
need  for  assisting  a  ewe  in  delivering  her  lamb.  However, 
the  shepherd  should  be  watchful,  and  after  the  ewe  has 
labored  in  vain  from  5  to  8  hours,  the  exact  time  depending 
on  the  condition  of  the  ewe  and  the  manner  that  the  lamb 
is  presented,  he  should  go  to  her  assistance.  The  normal 
presentation  of  a  lamb  is  front  feet  first,  with  the  nose  just 
between  them.  If  the  presentation  is  normal,  the  cause  of 
the  difficulty  in  lambing  is  probably  due  to  a  large  lamb. 
In  this  case  gently  pulling  the  lamb  and  as  gently  pushing  on 
the  external  parts  of  the  ewe  will  greatly  assist  her  while 
the  head  of  the  lamb  is  being  delivered.  For  a  short  time 
after  the  head  of  the  lamb  is  delivered  the  ewe  usually  stops 
straining.  During  this  short  cessation  of  labor  of  the  ewe, 
the  nose  of  the  lamb  should  be  wiped  so  that  it  may  breathe. 
After  labor  has  again  begun,  gently  pulling  on  the  lamb  and 
pushing  on  the  external  parts  of  the  ewe  will  assist  in  deliver- 
ing the  shoulders,  which  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  labor. 
After  the  shoulders  have  been  delivered,  the  ewe  should  be 
left  to  herself,  for  the  hips  and  hind  legs  of  the  lamb  usually 
come  away  easily.  A  short  time  after  the  lamb  is  born,  the 
ewe  should  get  up,  seek  her  lamb,  and  begin  licking  it  with 
her  tongue.  The  lamb  will  soon  try  to  stand  and  in  about 
15  minutes  will  try  to  suck,  and  if  it  succeeds  in  finding  the 


h;  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  §  32 

teat  and  in  getting  its  first  meal  unaided  it  is  claimed  by 
good  shepherds  to  be  half  raised. 

32.  Sometimes  prolonged  labor  is  caused  by  abnormal 
presentation  of  the  lamb.  As  soon  as  a  wrong  presentation 
is  known  to  be  the  trouble,  the  shepherd  should  go  to  the 
ewe's  assistance,  even  if  she  has  labored  only  1  hour  or  less. 
Usually,  the  wrong  presentation  of  the  lamb  must  be  corrected 
before  parturition  can  take  place.  If  a  shepherd  has  had 
experience  in  correcting  abnormal  presentations  he  may  be 
able  to  use  a  pair  of  lamb  forceps  to  advantage.  But  a 
shepherd  without  experience  in  this  operation  would  probably 
meet  with  a  much  larger  degree  of  success  by  using  his  bare 
hand,  especially  if  he  has  a  small  hand.  In  this  case  his 
hand,  wrist,  and  forearm  should  be  thoroughly  treated  with 
a  disinfectant  and  the  hand  and  wrist  anointed  with  lard, 
vaseline,  or  olive  oil.  The  shepherd,  knowing  what  the  right 
presentation  of  the  lamb  should  be,  must  carefully  push  the 
lamb  back,  if  it  has  been  partly  delivered,  push  his  hand 
into  the  vagina  of  the  ewe,  and  gently  arrange  the  lamb  for 
proper  presentation.  Sometimes  the  lamb  may  be  delivered 
hind  feet  first  without  great  inconvenience. 

33.  Giving  a  Weak  Lamb  Its  First  Meal. — Lambs  that  are 
too  weak  to  stand,  and  are,  therefore,  unable  to  suck,  must 
be  assisted  in  getting  their  first  meal.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished in  a  number  of  ways.  One  well-known  shepherd  and 
sheep  breeder  says  that  the  easiest  way  to  give  the  new-born 
lamb  its  first  meal  is  for  the  shepherd  to  set  the  ewe  on  her 
rump,  kneel  down,  and  support  her  with  his  body  and  left 
arm,  then,  after  starting  the  milk  from  the  teats,  lay  the 
lamb  on  its  side  and  place  the  teat  in  its  mouth.  The  details 
of  this  operation  can  best  be  learned  by  practice.  The  lamb 
usually  begins  sucking  as  soon  as  the  teat  is  placed  in  its 
mouth;  but  if  it  does>not,  a  small  quantity  of  milk  should  be 
caused  to  flow  into  the  lamb's  mouth.  The  lamb  should  be 
allowed  to  get  a  fair  meal,  after  which  it  should  not  be-neces- 
sary  to  give  it  further  assistance.  If,  however,  the  lamb  does 
not  suck  thereafter,  it  is  advisable  to  place  the  teat  in  its 


§32  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  47 

mouth  this  time  with  the  ewe  and  lamb  standing.  Often  the 
lamb  seems  able  to  offer  considerable  resistance  in  being  made 
to  suck,  and  the  shepherd  must  exercise  patience  to  insure 
success. 

34.  Care  of  Pregnant  and  Nursing  Ewes. — Pregnant  ewes 
should  have  plenty  of  exercise,  pure  fresh  air,  enough  whole- 
some feed  to  keep  them  in  good  flesh  but  not  fat,  and  should 
be  kept  dry.  Ewes  that  are  in  good  health  and  have  been 
well  cared  for  during  pregnancy,  will  generally  give  birth  to 
good  strong  lambs,  and  have  well-filled  udders  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  lambs.  As  soon  as  a  lamb  is  dropped  the  ewe 
and  lamb  should  be  placed  in  a  pen  by  themselves  or  in  a  pen 
with  other  ewes  with  new-born  lambs.  The  feed  of  the  ewe 
should  not  be  changed  suddenly  nor  her  milk  flow  stimulated 
immediately.  But  beginning  the  next  day  after  lambing, 
a  small  quantity  of  grain  should  be  fed  and  this  quantity 
increased  gradually  until  each  ewe  gets  about  §  pound  each 
of  shelled  corn  and  oats,  \  pound  of  bran,  and  all  the  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay  she  will  eat.  Other  suggested  rations  for 
pregnant  ewes  and  ewes  with  suckling  lambs  are  given 
elsewhere. 

The  next  day  after  the  lamb  is  dropped  the  ewe's  udder 
should  be  milked  clean,  and  if  her  lamb  does  not  take  all  her 
milk,  the  ewe  should  be  milked  each  day,  after  the  lamb  has 
sucked,  for  a  week  until  the  lamb  does  take  all  the  milk  that 
the  ewe  can  produce. 

35.  Care  of  a  Chilled  Lamb. — Occasionally,  in  spite  of  the 
best  watching  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd,  a  lamb  will  become 
so  thoroughly  chilled  as  to  be  helpless.  Lambs  chilled  almost 
to  the  point  of  death  can  be  revived  by  immersing  them  in 
water  as  warm  as  can  be  borne  by  the  hand.  The  water  soon 
becomes  cool,  and  hot  water  must  be  added.  Care,  of  course, 
is  to  be  taken  not  to  scald  the  lamb.  As  soon  as  revived  the 
lamb  should  be  wiped  dry  and  taken  to  its  dam  and  held  up 
while  it  takes  her  milk.  Ewe's  milk  is  always  preferred  to 
cow's  milk  for  young  lambs,  but  where  it  is  necessary  to  sub- 
stitute cow's  milk,  it  should  be  diluted  with  about  one-fourth 


4S  SHEEP  JUDGING  AND  BREEDING  |  32 

its  quantity  of  warm  water.  Where  lambs  are  only  slightly 
chilled,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case  with  the  first  one  of  twin 
lambs,  they  may  be  revived  by  rubbing  them  briskly  with 
the  hand  or  with  cloths  and  then  wrapping  them  in  a  blanket. 
Some  shepherds  keep  in  the  sheep  barn  at  lambing  time  a 
half  barrel  in  which  they  keep  a  jug  of  warm  water  and  clean 
dry  straw,  and  as  soon  as  the  first  one  of  twin  lambs  is  dropped 
it  is  placed  in  this  barrel  until  the  ewe  can  give  it  her  attention. 

36.  Teaching  a  Ewe  to  Own  a  Lamb. — It  sometimes 
happens  that  a  ewe,  usually  a  young  ewe,  will  not  own  her 
lamb.  This  condition  may  sometimes  be  corrected  by 
placing  the  ewe  and  lamb  in  a  small  pen  and  assisting  the 
lamb  in  securing  its  meals  for  a  few  days.  If  the  ewe  persists 
in  refusing  to  allow  the  lamb  to  suck,  or  if  she  attacks  it,  the 
best  remedy  is  to  tie  her  with  a  halter  so  that  she  may  eat 
and  lie  down  but  cannot  get  away  from  the  lamb  nor  attack 
it.  This  treatment  for  a  few  days  will  usually  cause  the  most 
obstinate  ewe  to  own  her  lamb.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  a 
sheep  breeder  to  have  a  lamb  die,  leaving  the  dam  with  an 
udder  full  of  milk.  In  nearly  all  such  cases,  if  one  of  a  pair 
of  twin  lambs  is  given  to  a  ewe  that  has  lost  her  lamb,  both 
the  ewe  and  the  lamb  will  fare  better  than  where  the  one  ewe 
has  no  lamb  and  another  ewe  has  two  lambs  to  suckle. 

The  best  way  to  accomplish  this  transference  is  to  skin  the 
dead  lamb  soon  after  its  death  and  fasten  the  pelt  over  the 
twin  lamb  as  neatly  as  possible.  Then  place  the  dam  of  the 
dead  lamb  and  the  lamb  wearing  its  pelt  in  a  pen  together 
and  it  is  seldom  that  the  ewe  will  not  adopt  the  new  lamb  at 
once.     After  a  few  days  the  pelt  may  be  taken  off  of  the  lamb. 


SHEKP  MANAGEMENT 

(PART  1) 


GENERAL   REMARKS 

1.  Importance  of  Sheep  Husbandry. — On  account  of  the 
various  purposes  for  which  flocks  of  sheep  may  be  main- 
tained, sheep  husbandry  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches 
of  the  livestock  industry.  The  prime  object  for  which  sheep 
are  raised  is  the  production  of  wool  and  mutton,  but  the  use 
that  may  be  made  of  a  flock  as  a  farm  scavenger  and  to 
maintain  the  soil  fertility,  commends  the  raising  of  sheep  to 
many  farmers. 

Wool  has  a  wider  range  of  usefulness  as  clothing  than  any 
other  material.  Woolen  fabrics  may  be  made  of  gossamer 
fineness  and  beautiful  finish  or  they  may  be  heavy,  coarse  and 
thick.  Clothing  made  from  wool  is  equally  useful  in  tropical 
regions  and  in  regions  of  intensely  cold  winters. 

Mutton  has  always  been  a  popular  food  with  the  people  of 
the  more  highly  civilized  nations.  This  has  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  special  breeds  of  sheep  for  the  production  of  the 
finest  quality  of  mutton. 

2.  Sheep  as  Farm  Scavengers. — Sheep  are  a  great  aid  to 
farmers  in  clearing  land  of  brush  and  weeds.  Land  on  which 
sheep  have  been  pastured  for  one  or  two  seasons  is  likely  to 
be  free  from  weeds  and  to  be  in  better  condition  for  the 
growing  of  crops  or  for  pasture  purposes  than  it  would  be 
without  the  work  of  the  sheep.  Wild  mustard,  bindweed, 
goldenrod,  ragweed,  lamb's  quarter,  oxeye  daisy,  wild  carrot, 
foxtail,    red   root,    sow    thistle,    cockle,    and    dandelion   are 

COPYRIGHTED   BY   INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY.        ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'   HALL,    LONDON 

§33 


2  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

some  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds  with  which  the  farmer 
has  to  contend,  and  they  can  be  completely  exterminated 
by  pasturing  sheep  on  fields  overrun  with  them. 

When  grain  or  roughage  containing  more  or  less  weed  seed 
is  fed  to  farm  animals  other  than  sheep,  a  large  portion  of  the 
weed  seed  will  pass  through  the  animals  without  losing  its 
power  to  sprout  and  grow,  but  the  process  of  digestion  in 
sheep  is  such  that  the  smallest  and  most  resistant  seeds  are 
affected  and  their  vitality  destroyed.  It  is  the  ability  to 
obtain  nourishment  from  all  kinds  of  plants  and  their  seeds 
that  enables  sheep  to  clean  so  thoroughly  a  farm  of  most  of 
its  weeds. 

Sheep  not  only  clean  the  farm  of  weeds  but  also  turn  into 
wool  and  mutton  the  farm  wastes,  such  as  straw  from  the 
grain  crops,  culls  from  root  and  vegetable  crops,  damaged 
grain,  screenings,  etc. 

3.     Sheep  as  an  Aid  in  Maintaining  Fertility  of  Soil. — As 

an  efficient  aid  in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil  no 
domestic  animal  is  superior  to  sheep.  They  are  natural 
manure  spreaders.  In  pasture  fields  the  highest  and  barest 
knolls  are  always  chosen  by  sheep  for  resting  places  at  night, 
and  their  droppings  soon  enrich  the  knolls  to  such  an  extent, 
that  they  are  capable  of  producing  good  crops.  The  bene- 
ficent effects  of  a  flock  of  sheep  on  loose  sandy  soils  cannot 
be  overestimated,  and  they  should  be  placed  on  all  such  soils 
to  compact  them  and  fit  them  for  growing  crops.  It  has 
fittingly  been  said  of  sheep,  that  they  will  not  only  improve 
the  fertility  of  the  farm  on  which  they  are  raised  but  will 
pay  the  owner  a  profit  for  the  privilege  of  improving  his 
farm. 

Authorities  who  have  given  the  subject  of  farm  manures 
careful  consideration  claim  that  a  sheep  produces  annually 
manure  valued  at  about  $2.50.  This  value  is  determined 
from  the  quantities  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
found  in  the  excrement  voided  by  a  sheep  in  a  year  and  the 
price  paid  for  these  quantities  when  they  are  purchased  in 
the  form  of  commercial  fertilizer. 


§  33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  3 

4.  Land  Adapted  for  Sheep  Raising.  The  land  best 
adapted  for  sheep  raising  depends  largely  on  the  breed  of 
sheep  to  be  raised.  If  one  of  the  mutton  breeds  is  chosen, 
rather  level  or  gently  rolling  land  capable  of  growing  good 
grain  and  forage  crops,  having  luxuriant  and  well-watered 
pasturage,  and  with  considerable  lime  in  the  soil,  will  give 
the  best  results.  The  long-wool  mutton  breeds,  such  as  the 
Leicester,  Lincoln  and  Cotswold,  will  find  such  conditions 
suited  in  every  way  to  their  requirements.  The  higher  and 
richer  the  grass  the  better  it  will  suit  them,  as  their  heavy 
bodies  and  quiet  disposition  render  them  less  active  than  the 
lighter  breeds.  The  lighter  medium-wool  breeds  will  also 
do  well  on  such  land.  The  pasturage  relished  best  by  the 
latter  breeds,  however,  is  not  so  rank  in  growth,  and  is 
produced  on  land  that  is  dryer  and  more  rolling  than  the 
land  best  suited  to  the  long-wool  breeds. 

Land  that  is  broken,  rough,  and  hilly,  and  has  scant 
pasturage  is  best  adapted  to  the  Merino  breed.  The  Merino 
sheep  flock  well,  are  good  travelers,  can  stand  heat  and  also 
cold  when  once  acclimated,  and  are  not  so  quickly  or  seriously 
affected  by  a  shortage  of  water  as  are  the  mutton  breeds. 
In  fact,  the  Merinos  thrive  well  where  the  mutton  breeds 
would  soon  become  worthless. 

The  main  thing  in  the  selection  of  land  for  a  sheep  farm  is 
to  avoid  low,  marshy  land  that  is  liable  to  be  overflowed  and 
that  produces  rank  growth  of  coarse  grasses.  Sheep  hus- 
bandry can  never  be  carried  on  successfully  on  such  land,  as 
the  flock  is  sure  to  become  affected  with  parasites.  The 
pools  of  stagnant  water,  the  marsh  and  swamp  conditions, 
and  the  lack  of  nutriment  in  the  coarse  herbage  will  soon 
undermine  the  health  of  the  flock  and  render  it  peculiarly 
susceptible  to  attacks  of  disease,  especially  those  of  parasitic 
origin.  Frequently  the  flocks  in  such  locations  become 
affected  with  a  species  of  malarial  fever,  which  assumes  a 
typhoid  character  and  is  generally  fatal  if  the  animals  are  not 
at  once  moved  to  higher  ground  and  better  pastures.  If  the 
prospective  sheep  raiser  already  owns  a  farm  it  is  then  a  case 
of  selecting  a  breed  of  sheep  suited  to  his  farm. 


4  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

5.     Number    of    Sheep    that    Land    Will    Maintain. — The 

margin  of  profit  in  sheep  raising  has  nearly  always  proved 
greatest  when  a  few  sheep  have  been  kept  on  a  relatively 
large  area,  and  it  does  not  always  follow  that  by  abandoning 
other  lines  of  farming  and  increasing  the  number  of  sheep 
kept  on  a  farm  that  the  margin  of  profit  will  be  as  great. 
The  larger  the  number  of  sheep  kept  on  a  given  area  the  greater 
the  danger  of  losses  from  parasitic  diseases,  and  the  greater 
must  be  the  ability  of  the  raiser  to  keep  the  margin  of  profit 
as  high  as  in  small  flocks.  When  sheep  raising  is  conducted 
as  a  side  line  and  not  as  a  specialty,  twenty-five  breeding 
ewes,  a  ram,  and  the  offspring  until  they  are  ready  for  market 
are  a  good  number  to  keep  on  each  100  acres  of  land.  When 
sheep  raising  is  conducted  as  a  specialty,  the  number  that 
can  be  kept  on  100  acres  will  be  largely  increased. 

Eight  Merino  ewes  are  practically  equivalent  in  the  quantity 
of  feed  consumed,  to  one  animal  of  the  cattle  kind.  But, 
since  the  grade  sheep  of  the  country  are  largely  infused  with 
the  blood  of  the  larger  English  mutton  breeds,  this  proportion 
may  be  decreased.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  at  least  five 
or  six  times  as  many  sheep  as  cattle  may  be  kept.  This 
proportion  can  be  somewhat  increased  in  case  the  farm  is 
not  especially  adapted  for  cattle  production  but  is  suitable 
for  sheep  raising.  Since  sheep  will  thrive  on  much  poorer 
feed  than  cattle,  they  are  particularly  adapted  for  cheap, 
hilly  lands  that  are  kept  almost  continuously  in  grass. 

If  a  farm  is  capable  of  supporting  50  cows  or  steers  on 
each  100  acres  of  land,  each  100  acres  will  support  250  ewes 
and  the  necessary  rams.  Doubtless  a  larger  number  could 
be  kept  on  the  same  area  by  the  intelligent  practice  of  inten- 
sive methods.  Such  methods,  however,  have  not  been  well 
worked  out  in  the  United  States,  because  land  has  been  too 
plentiful  and  cheap,  and  sheep  products  have  not  been 
sufficiently  high  in  price  to  make  it  advisable  to  adopt  inten- 
sive methods. 

A  few  sheep  will  be  found  profitable  on  nearly  all  farms. 
The  beginner  without  practical  experience  should  start  with 
a  small  flock  of  25  or  at  most  50  ewes.     After  marketing  a 


§  33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  5 

few  crops  of  lambs,  the  owner  will  have  secured  valuable 
experience  in  the  raising  of  sheep.  This  experience  will 
greatly  assist  him  in  increasing  the  size  of  the  flock  up  to 
the  carrying  capacity  of  the  farm,  and  also  to  increase  the 
sheep-carrying  capacity  of  the  farm. 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  EQUIPMENT 


BARNS  FOR  HOUSING  OF  SHEEP 

6.  General  Requirements  for  a  Sheep  Barn.— Tn  selecting 
a  location  for  a  sheep  barn,  the  habits  of  the  animals  must  be 
given  due  consideration.  Sheep  naturally  favor  a  dry,  sunny 
situation  away  from  other  farm  buildings.  In  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada  more  attention  must 
be  given  to  proper  shelter  for  the  flock  than  farther  south, 
where  the  winter  season  is  shorter  and  the  weather  less  severe. 
The  sheep  barn  should  be  well  ventilated,  clean,  and  free 
from  drafts.  It  is  not  necessary  or  even  wise  to  make  the 
sheep  barn  too  warm.  During  the  winter  season,  sheep  are 
in  full  fleece  and  if  housed  too  closely  they  will  lose  their 
appetites  and  sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  likely  to 
cause  some  of  the  wool  to  become  loose  and  fall  out,  thus 
making  the  fleeces  ragged.  This  is  all  the  more  likely  to 
occur  if  a  large  quantity  of  corn  is  being  fed  to  the  flock. 
Some  successful  sheep  raisers,  in  cold  weather,  keep  the 
temperature  in  the  barn  at '  about  the  freezing  point  by 
regulating  the  ventilation  so  that  a  thin  layer  of  ice  will  be 
formed  on  water  in  the  barn.  If  the  barn  is  kept  at  this 
temperature  the  sheep  will  not  suffer  from  cold  when  turned 
into  the  yard.  Sheep  that  are  being  fattened  do  not  require 
as  much  warmth  as  those  kept  for  breeding  purposes. 

7.  A  sheep  barn,  especially  a  barn  for  a  breeding  flock, 
should  have  plenty  of  light.  The  windows  should  be  large, 
so  as  to  give  free  admission  of  sunlight.  There  is  no  better  or 
surer  destroyer  of  germs   than   sunlight,  and  it  is  essential 


6  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

for  young  lambs,  which  will  bask  in  it  at  every  opportunity. 
An  abundance  of  sunshine  insures  good  appetite,  vigorous 
growth,  and  freedom  from  sore  eyes,  a  disorder  that  often 
afflicts  lambs  raised  in  dark  barns.  It  is  equally  essential  to 
the  health  of  the  older  sheep.  If  a  sufficient  number  of 
windows  is  provided  for  the  admission  of  light  and  sunshine 
and  they  are  either  made  to  slide  sidewise  in  a  groove  or  are 
hinged  at  the  bottom,  the  barn  can  be  easily  and  properly 
ventilated  and  the  air  kept  fresh  and  free  from  bad  odors 
without  interfering  with  the  comfort  of  the  flock.  Air  should 
be  admitted  at  a  sufficient  height  so  that  the  sheep  will  not 
be  subject  to  a  direct  draft.  If  a  ventilating  shaft  is  used  it 
should  reach  to  within  6  or  8  inches  of  the  floor  and  extend 
2  or  3  feet  above  the  roof  of  the  barn  to  insure  a  good  draft. 
Two  such  shafts  are  sufficient  in  a  barn  of  from  40  or  50  feet 
in  length,  and  when  it  is  convenient  they  should  be  placed 
at  equal  distances  from  each  end  of  the  building  and  from  each 
other.  Such  shafts  keep  the  air  in  the  building  in  circulation 
but  do  not  create  drafts,  or  in  any  way  tend  to  the  discomfort 
of  the  flock.  For  this  reason  they  furnish  an  excellent  means 
of  ventilation  in  a  breeding  or  feeding  barn,  especially  when 
the  barn  is  tight  enough  to  prevent  drafts  through  cracks  and 
crevices. 

A  dirt  floor  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  a  sheep  barn,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  the  barn  is  located  where  the  floor  will 
always  be  dry. 

8.  Feed  racks  should  be  provided  in  a  sheep  barn  and 
should  be  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  moved  and  used 
to  divide  the  flock  or  to  fence  off  sections  for  ewes  at  lambing 
time  or  for  rams  or  sick  sheep.  These  racks  can  be  built  so 
as  to  provide  a  trough  for  grain  and  roots,  as  well  as  a  place 
for  hay,  corn  fodder,  or  other  roughage.  There  should  be 
15  inches  of  feed  rack  provided  for  each  sheep  weighing  from 
90  to  110  pounds,  and  from  IS  to  20  inches  for  each  of  those 
weighing  from  125  to  150  pounds. 

9.  A  constant  supply  of  good,  clean  water  at  the  barn, 
preferably  from  a  deep  well  or  from  a  controlled  spring,  is  a 


§33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  7 

great  help  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  sheep.  Small  gal- 
vanized steel  or  concrete  tanks  can  be  placed  under  taps, 
and  each  tank  should  be  provided  with  a  waste  pipe  to  allow 
the  water  to  be  drawn  off  after  it  has  stood  some  time  in  them. 
They  can  then  be  cleaned  out  if  necessary  and  refilled  with 
fresh  water.  A  large  storage  tank  should  be  provided,  so 
that  in  case  of  an  accident  of  any  sort  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water  is  available.  Salt  boxes  should  be  placed  near  the 
tanks  so  that  the  sheep  may  have  access  to  them  at  all  times. 
Salt  boxes  should  form  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  all  sheep 
barns  or  feeding  sheds. 

10.  In  sheep  barns  used  to  house  a  breeding  flock,  it  is 
well  to  provide  quarters  for  the  shepherd.  This  can  be  done 
by  partitioning  off  a  portion  of  the  building  with  tongued- 
and-grooved  lumber  such  as  is  used  for  flooring.  In  this 
room  should  be  placed  a  cot,  a  stove  for  heating  water,  and 
the  apparatus  required  in  caring  for  the  flock,  especially  the 
ewes  in  lamb;  also  the  instruments  and  tools  required  for 
castrating  and  docking  lambs  and  for  shearing.  A  cabinet 
in  which  medicinal  preparations  are  stored  for  emergencies 
should  also  be  provided,  and  a  couple  of  galvanized-iron  pails 
will  be  wanted  for  carrying  water  and  holding  hot  water  for 
the  treatment  of  chilled  lambs. 

11.  Plan  for  Construction  of  Sheep  Barn. — The  ground- 
floor  plan  of  a  barn  designed  to  shelter  about  50  breeding 
ewes  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  pens  are  arranged  about  the 
watering  trough,  which  is  so  situated  that  four  different  lots 
of  sheep  may  have  access  to  water  at  the  same  time.  The 
floor  is  of  earth  with  the  exception  of  the  space  a  shown  at 
the  left  in  the  illustration.  This  space,  which  is  6  feet  wide, 
is  covered  with  a  tight  board  floor  and  under  it  is  a  cellar 
7  feet  deep  for  the  storage  of  roots.  All  the  racks  and  the 
partitions  except  that  next  to  the  floored  space  are  movable, 
which  permits  of  driving  into  the  barn  with  the  manure 
spreader  or  wagon  when  manure  is  to  be  removed.  The  feed 
racks  across  the  ends  of  the  barn  may  be  set  back  against  the 
wall  if  more  room  is  desired  for  the  sheep.     In  this  case, 

243—17 


Fig.  1 


§33 


SHEEP   MANAGEMENT 


9 


however,  the  hay  would  have  to  be  carried  through  the  pens 
to  be  placed  in  the  racks. 

The  large  pens  are  for  the  breeding  ewes.  If  these  ewes 
are  not  uniform  in  condition  and  thrift  and  it  is  desirable  to 
keep  them  separate  so  that  they  can  be  treated  differently, 
it  can  be  done  by  placing  a  partition  b  between  the  watering 
trough  and  the  side  of  the  barn.  If  there  is  no  reason  for 
dividing  the  ewes  into  two  lots  the  partition  need  not  be  used. 
The  small  pens  are  adapted  to  a  number  of  uses,  such  as 
space  for  young  ewes,  rams,  lambing  pens,  a  creep  for  lambs, 
that  is,  a  place  where  the  lambs  may  .go  but  the  mature 
sheep  cannot ;  and  if  not  needed  at  all,  the  partitions  may  be 
removed  and  thus  the  arrangement  for  the  general  flock 
made  more  simple.  The  doors  shown  on  the  right  side  of 
the  barn  open  into  the  sheep   yards. 

At  each  end  of  the  barn  there  is  a  3-foot  door  that  opens 
into  the  floored  space  at  the  left  side  of  the  barn.  The 
windows,  especially  those  on  the  right  side  of  the  barn,  admit 
the  necessary  sunlight,  and  these,  together  with  the  ventilator 
shaft  c  make  ample  provision  for  a  free  circulation  of  air, 
which  is  of  prime  importance 
in  a  sheep  barn.  The  venti- 
lator shaft  is  built  against  the  side 
of  the  barn  and  extends  above  the 
roof  in  a  cupola.  By  being  located 
thus  it  occupies  but  little  space  in 
the  hay  mow  and  is  not  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  storing  of  hay. 


12.  On  the  left  side  on  the 
second  floor  of  the  barn  are  a 
grain  and  a  wool  room,  and  the 
rest  of  the  space  is  for  the  storage 
of  hay.  The  arrangement  of  the 
rooms  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The 
wool  room  may  be  used  for  a  shep- 
herd's room  during  the  lambing  season,  since  at  that  time  it 
is  not  likely  to  contain  wool.     The  space  a  shown  inside  of  the 


Pig.  -2 


Section  on  L/ne  C-D 


Fig.  3 


Ki 


§  33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


11 


dotted  lines  is  for  a  trap  door  so  that  feed  may  be  raised  and 
lowered  by  means  of  a  rope  and  pulley.  This  opening  is  a 
convenient  place  in  which  to  place  the  bag  when  bagging 
the  wool. 

13.     A  sectional  elevation  of  the  barn  taken  on  the  line 
CD,  Fig.  1,  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.     The  cellar,  in  which  the  roots 


Fig.  4 

for  winter  feeding  are  stored,  is  shown  at  a.  At  6  is  shown 
one  of  the  windows  for  lighting  the  cellar,  together  with  the 
masonry  construction  on  the  outside  of  it;  the  window  is 
also  a  convenience  for  passing  roots  to  the  cellar  to  be  stored. 
The  cellar  stairway  is  shown  at  c,  and  above  this  is  shown 
the  stairway  to  the  second  floor.     The  location  of  the  wool 


12 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


$33 


room  on  the  second  floor  is  shown  at  e,  and  /  shows  the 
ventilation  shaft. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  4,  the  barn  has  a  hip  roof,  which  requires 
little  dimension  timber  and  allows  for  a  maximum  storage 


Fig.  5 

place  for  hay  or  other  roughage.  At  the  right  of  the  illustra- 
tion is  shown  the  construction  of  one  of  the  middle  bents. 
The  section  of  this  bent,  taken  on  the  line  A  B,  is. shown 
separately.  On  the  left  is  shown  the  construction  of  one  of 
the  end  bents. 

The  size  of  this  type  of  barn  can  be  easily  changed  to  suit 
the   needs  of  the   size   of  flock  handled.     If  the   flock  is  a 


Fig.  6 


large  one  there  may  be  need  for  more  than  one  watering 
place,  in  which  case  there  may  be  a  series  of  pens  similar 
to  those  shown  in  Fig.  1. 


Feec/  Pack 

*7 "rr^     :~       ~~ ...::::::::::.  :..::~r 


r 


/ 


Feed  an c/  Storage  Poor* 


/reeoy  Pack 

t..\. :.::..' ■ 

<o 

*5 

V 

S 

<0 

i 

1 

* 

0 

A) 'anger 


Cow 


<Sfo-//s 


Gut/er 


Marrgrer 


i .,l"- v  ■'... 


-',. ",",~ 


) : :.'.":...'  '     ,"."'.^'  ' 


36 '-O' 


13 


Fig.  7 


14  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

14.  Remodeling  of  Old  Barns. — Barns  such  as  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  are  found  on  many  more  or  less  dilapidated 
farms,  on  which  a  flock  of  sheep  would  prove  useful  in  clean- 
ing up  and  bringing  the  farms  into  a  profitable  state  of  pro- 
duction. If  available  room  cannot  be  found  in  such  barns 
for  the  accommodation  of  a  flock  of  sheep,  a  cheap  lean-to 
shed  may  be  built  on  one  or  two  sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
Such  sheds  should  have  windows  to  admit  as  much  sunlight 
as  possible,  and  for  the  sake  of  convenience  there  should  be 
a  door  between  the  shed  and  the  barn  through  which  hay 
and  grain  may  be  carried ;  the  feed  racks  and  troughs  may  be 
placed  on  the  side  next  to  the  barn,  as  shown  in  the  floor 
plan  in  Fig.  7,  or,  if  necessary,  they  may  be  placed  on  both 
sides  and  at  the  ends  of  the  shed. 

Such  a  shed  makes  a  very  good  shelter  for  a  small  flock 
kept  for  either  breeding  or  feeding  purposes. 

15.  Many  farms  are  equipped  with  basement,  or  bank, 
barns,  the  basement  of  which  may  be  used  for  sheep  and  the 
upper  part  for  the  storing  of  hay  and  roughage.  In  this  case, 
the  floor  above  the  sheep  should  be  made  as  tight  as  pos- 
sible to  prevent  the  chaff,  seeds,  and  dust  from  falling  on 
them  and  injuring  their  fleeces. 


SYSTEMS    AND    EQUIPMENT  FOR    SHEEP  MARKING 

16.  The  careful  sheep  breeder  will  need  to  have  each 
breeding  sheep  marked  in  some  way,  so  that  he  may  be  able 
to  keep  a  record  of  each  sheep  of  the  flock  from  its  birth. 
Some  breeders  employ  the  plan  of  marking  the  ears  so  that 
any  animal  in  a  flock  may  be  identified.  A  plan  of  such  a 
system  of  marks,  and  one  that  is  especially  recommended 
for  the  marking  of  lambs,  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  By  this  sys- 
tem, lamb  No.  1  is  marked  with  one  notch  in  the  lower  edge 
of  the  left  ear  near  the  head;  No.  2,  with  two  such  notches; 
No.  3,  with  one  notch  in  the  lower  edge  of  same  ear  near  the 
tip;  No.  4,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  1  and  3; 
No.  5,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  2  and  3; 
No.  6,  with  two  notches  like  the  one  for  No.  3;  No.  7,  with  a 


^tv  't, 


lfi 


Fig.  8 


16  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  /  and  6;  No.  8,  with  a 
combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  2  and  6;  and  No.  9,  with 
a  single  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  left  ear. 
Nos.  10,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60,  70,  80,  and  90  are  marked,  respec- 
tively, by  the  notches  of  Nos.  1  to  9,  but  made  in  the  lower 
edge  of  the  right  ear  instead  of  in  the  left  ear.  Thus,  No.  10 
is  marked  with  one  notch  near  the  head  on  the  lower  edge 
of  the  right  ear;  No.  20,  with  two  such  notches;  No.  30,  with 
one  notch  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  right  ear  near  the  tip; 
No.  40,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  10  and  30; 
No.  50,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  20  and  30; 
No.  60,  with  two  notches  like  the  one  for  No.  30;  No.  70, 
with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  10  and  60;  No.  80, 
with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of  Nos.  20  and  60;  and 
No.  90,  with  one  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  lower  edge  of 
the  right  ear.  Hundreds  are  indicated  by  making  a 
similar  arrangement  of  notches  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  left 
ear.  Thus,  No.  100  is  marked  with  one  notch  in  the  upper 
edge  of  the  left  ear  near  the  head;  No.  300,  with  one  notch 
near  the  tip;  No.  500,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  of 
Nos.  200  and  300;  etc.  If  it  should  be  desirable,  notches 
may  be  placed  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  right  ear  to  indicate 
the  Nos.  1,000,  2,000,  etc.  to  9,000. 

No.  11  is  marked  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  indi- 
cating Nos.  10  and  1 ;  No.  12,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches 
indicating  Nos.  10  and  2;  No.  13,  with  a  combination  of  the 
notches  indicating  Nos.  10  and  3;  etc.  No.  21  is  marked 
with  a  combination  of  the  notches  indicating  Nos.  20  and  1 ; 
No.  32,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches  indicating  Nos.  30 
and  2;  No.  43,  with  a  combination  of  notches  indicating 
Nos.  40  and  3;  No.  76,  with  a  combination  of  the  notches 
indicating  Nos.  70  and  6;  No.  101,  with  a  combination  of  the 
notches  indicating  Nos.  100  and  1;  No.  290,  with  a  combina- 
tion of  the  notches  indicating  Nos.  200  and  90;  No.  365, 
with  a  combination  of  the  notches  indicating  Nos.  300,  60, 
and  5;  etc.  By  a  careful  study  of  this  system  of  marking 
it  is  readily  seen  that  any  number  from  1  to  9,999  may 
be   indicated  by  making   notches .  in  the  edges  of  the  ears. 


§33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


17 


The    notches   should   be   only   small    nicks    in    the    edges    of 
the  ears. 


Fig.  9 


Fig.  10 


17.     A  punch  for  making  ear  marks  on  sheep  is  shown 
in  Fig.  9. 

Some  breeders  prefer  to  mark  their  sheep,  especially  mature 
animals,  with  ear  labels  or  ear  buttons.  These  are  made  of 
non-rusting  metals,  and  are  of  a  size  that  the  owners'  name, 
or  at  least  the  initials  of  the  owners'  name,  can  be  stamped 
on  one  side  and  a  number  on  the  other.  One  of  the  most 
common  labels  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  The  punch  used  to  make 
the  hole  in  the  ear  for  the  label  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 1 .  The 
punch  is  also  used  to  close  the  ends  of  the  label  together 
after  it  is  placed  in  the  ear.  An  ear  button  is  shown  in 
Fig.  12.  It  is  made  in  two  parts,  each  with  a  shank.  The 
part  with  the  shank  a,  which  is  the  larger, 
is  placed  through  a  hole  in  the  ear  and 
the  shank  b  on  the  other  part  is  slipped 
into  shank  a  and  the  two  parts  are 
clinched  together  as  shown  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  illustration. 


Fig.  11 


Fig.  12 


Many  farmers  who  do  not  care  to  keep  an  accurate  record 
of  each  animal,  but  desire  to  mark  all  animals  for  identification 


18 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§33 


in  case  flocks  of  different  owners  get  together,  use  a  marking 
fluid,  or  paint,  which  is  applied  to  the  wool  of  the  sheep  by 

means  of  a  marker, 
several  of  which  are 
shown  in  Fig.  13. 
Some  of  the  markers, 
such  as  the  one  shown 
in  (a),  are  easily  made 
of  a  single  piece  of  soft 
wood;  an  extra  large 
corn  cob  is  hollowed 
out,  as  shown  in  (6), 
and  made  to  answer 
for  a  circular  marker; 
markers  such  as  the 
one  shown  in  (c)  and 
the  marking  fluid  may 
be  secured  from  supply 
houses  dealing  in  sheep 
breeders'  supplies. 


Fig 


MISCELLANEOUS    EQUIPMENT 

18.     Feed  Rack. — In   Fig.    14  is  shown  the  construction 
of  a  combination  rack  and  trough  highly  recommended  for 


(a) 


Fig.  14 


'Jf 


Tj 


the  feeding  of  roughage  and  grain  to  sheep.     The  front  view 
is  shown  in  (a)  and  the  side  view,  in  (6).     The  feed  trough  a 


§33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


19 


is  10  inches  wide  at  the  bottom  and  13  inches  wide  at  the  top. 
The  front  of  the  rack  above  the  feed  trough  is  made  15  inches 
wide,  either  of  one  board  or  of  several  boards  closely  matched, 
so  that  none  of  the  loose  particles  from  the  roughage  can  fall 
on  the  backs  and  necks  of  the  sheep,  but  all  must  fall  in  the 
trough  where  the  sheep  can  easily  get  it.  The  G-inch  board  b 
slanting  from  the  bottom  of  the  rack  proper  to  the  bottom 
of  the  trough  prevents  any  of  the  small  particles  from  falling 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  sheep.  Experience  has  clearly  demon- 
strated that  by  the  use  of  this  rack  no  hay  or  other  roughage 
can  be  wasted  if  the  sheep  are  not  overfed  and  that  the  chaff 
and  seed  from  the  roughage  cannot  get  into  the  wool  of  the 
sheep. 


Fir,.  i:> 


All  the  material  used  in  making  this  rack,  except  the  front 
of  the  feed-trough  and  the  3f-inch  slats,  should  be  of  hard 
pine  or  similar  lumber,  dressed  on  one  side.  The  front  of  the 
feed  trough  and  the  slats  should  be  of  soft  pine  or  other 
soft  wood  dressed  on  both  sides.  All  edges  r  with  which  the 
sheep  come  in  contact  should  be  rounded  to  prevent  the 
wool  of  the  sheep  from  being  pulled  out. 

These  racks  may  be  set  singly  along  an  aisle,  or  feed  alley, 
along  the  side  of  the  barn,  or  they  may  be  placed  singly  or 
back  to  back  to  form  partitions  in  the  barn.  They  are  not 
cumbersome  and  when  two  are  placed  back  to  back  to  form 
a  partition  between  two  pens  of  sheep,   those  in  each   pen 


20  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

mav    be    fed    entirely    different    rations,    as    is    often    found 
advisable. 

19.  Panels  for  Making  Pens  and  Partitions  in  Sheep 
Barns. — Convenient  appliances  for  making  temporary  pens 
or  partitions  in  sheep  barns  are  panels,  either  single  or  double. 
The  latter  is  made  by  hinging  two  panels  together,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  15,  which  shows  a  side  view  in  (a)  and  a  top  view 
in  (b).  The  panels  may  be  of  the  dimensions  shown  or  of  any 
other  convenient  size.  Both  ends  of  single  panels  are  made 
like  the  free  ends  of  the  double  panel  shown.  They  will  be 
most  convenient  if  the  boards  are  of  soft  pine  or  other  light, 
durable  lumber,  4  inches  wide,  f-inch  thick,  and  planed  on 
both  sides.  A  double  panel  may  be  opened  at  right  angles, 
placed  in  the  corner  of  the  barn,  and  the  ends  hooked  to  the 
walls  of  the  barn  so  as  to  form  a  pen.  A  row  of  such  pens 
may  be  made  by  fastening  one  end  of  a  double  panel  to  the 
wall  of  the  barn  and  to  the  corner  of  the  pen  previously 
made.  Pens  of  such  size  are  desirable  for  a  ewe  at  lambing 
time,  for  a  sick  sheep,  or  for  a  sheep  that  it  may  be'desirable 
to  separate  from  the  flock.  The  panels  are  often  convenient 
in  making  temporary  partitions  in  the  barn. 

20.  Sheep  Yards. — Adjoining  the  barn  should  be  a  large 
vard  into  which  the  sheep  may  be  allowed  to  run  during 
pleasant  weather.  The  yard  should  be  at  least  double  the 
area  covered  by  the  barn,  well  drained,  surrounded  by  a  good 
fence,  and  the  ground  gradually  sloping  from  the  barn  and 
covered  with  gravel.  If  possible,  the  yard  should  be  so 
divided  that,  by  leaving  the  barn  doors  open,  the  separate 
pens  of  sheep  in  the  barn  may  have  free  access  to  a  definite 
division  of  the  yard.  If  this  arrangement  can  be  made 
the  sheep  will,  to  a  large  degree,  remain  in  the  barn  during 
inclement  weather,  but  run  in  the  yard  during  pleasant 
weather.  Open  feed  racks  should  be  placed  in  the  yard 
and  kept  full  of  hay,  corn  fodder,  or  other  roughage,  so  that 
the  sheep  may  eat  at  their  pleasure. 

21.  Dipping  Outfit. — The  prevalence  on  sheep  of  external 
parasites,  ticks,  mites,  etc.,  that  can  best  be  killed  by  immers- 


33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


21 


ing  the  sheep  in  a  liquid  known  as  dip,  or  dipping  fluid, 
renders  a  dipping  plant  very  useful  wherever  a  flock  of  sheep 
is  maintained.  The  outfit  may  be  more  or  less  elaborate, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  flock.  For  a  flock  of  from  2~>  to 
500  sheep  an  ordinary  galvanized  steel  tank  is  all  that  is 
required.  Such  a  tank  is  shown  in  Fig.  10;  it  is  about  4  feet 
deep,  8  feet  long  at  the  top,  4  feet  long  at  the  bottom,  30  inches 
wide  at  the  top,  and  8  inches  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  tank 
should  be  sunk  into  the  ground  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
top,  and  may  be  placed  either  under  cover  or  in  the  open, 
as  may  prove  to  be  most  convenient.  A  temporary  fence 
should  enclose  a  yard  that  narrows  as  it  approaches  the  per- 
pendicular end  of  the  tank  where  a  gate  opens  toward  the 
tank  and  allows  the 
sheep  to  be  led  or 
driven  through,  sing- 
ly, and  pushed  into 
the  tank.  When  in 
use,  the  tank  should 
be  filled  to  within  0 
or  8  inches  of  the  top 
with  a  dipping  fluid, 
which  may  be  secured 
in  concentrated  form 
from  dealers  in  stock- 
men's supplies.  The 
dipping   fluid   in   the 

tank  should  be  kept  at  a  sufficient  depth  to  compel  the  sheep 
to  swim  through  it.  Each  sheep  as  it  swims  through  the  dip- 
ping fluid  should  be  forced  under  the  surface  to  insure  getting 
the  fleece  thoroughly  soaked.  A  pole  with  a  crutch-shaped  end* 
is  commonly  used  for  submerging  the  sheep.  As  the  animals 
reach  the  further  end  of  the  tank  they  will  walk  up  the  incline 
onto  a  platform  known  as  the  drip  platform,  where  they  should 
be  compelled  to  stand  and  have  the  excessive  dip  squeezed 
out  of  their  fleeces.  This  platform  may  be  made  permanent  or 
movable,  and  should  be  sloped  downwards  toward  the  tank 
so  that  the  drip  from  the  sheep  will  run  back  into  the  tank. 


Fig.  16 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§33 


It   will   be  found  convenient  to  put  a  temporary  fence  on 
the  sides  of  the  platform,  to  leave  the  end  toward  the  tank 


Fig.  17 

open,  and  to  close  the  opposite  end  with  a  gate,  which 
can  be  opened  readily  to  allow  the  sheep  to  pass  into  an 
adjoining  yard. 

A  tank  that  will  meet  all  requirements  can  be  made  of 
2-inch  plank.  The  tank  should  have  the  form  and  dimensions 
of  an  ordinary  steel  tank.  The  edges  of  the  plank  should  be 
planed  so  they  will  fit  tightly  together  and  prevent  any 
material  leakage.  It  should  be  fitted  with  a  y£.rd,  a  plat- 
form, and  a  fence,  as  recommended  for  the  steel  tank.  When 
the  tank  is  not  in  use  the  platform  can  be  utilized  as  a  cover 
for  the  tank  to  prevent  accidents  and  to  keep  out  dirt. 

When  a  large  number  of  sheep  have  to  be  dipped,  as  is 
often  the  case  on  large  sheep  ranches,  enlarged  facilities  must 
be  provided,  and  tanks  from  IS  to  40  feet  in  length  may  be 
used.  They  may  be  of  galvanized  steel,  plank,  or  concrete. 
The  latter  will  be  found  the  most  durable  and  is  the  most 
desirable  material  to  use  where  it  is  available. 

22.  Toe  Clippers  and  Docking  Pincers. — The  implement 
shown   in    Fig.    17   and    known  as   sheep    toe    clippers,   also 

as  a  pruning  shears, 

should    be    found   in 

the    equipment    of 

every     sheep     raiser, 

whether  the  flock  is  a 

FlG  18  large    or    small    one. 

This  implement  is  sometimes  used  for  the  docking  of  lambs, 

although    the    docking  pincers    shown  in   Fig.  IS  are  made 


s<  33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


23 


especially  for  the  latter  purpose  and  have  proved  satisfactory 
wherever  used.  When  used,  the  docking  pincers  are  heated 
to  redness.  The  cutting  edges  arc  not  made  very  sharp,  but 
thin  at  the  edge  and  thickening  toward  the  middle  so  as  to 
hold  the  heat.  This  construction 
enables  the  operator  to  cut  off  the 
tail  and  to  cauterize  the  wound  at 
the  same  time. 

23.  Sheep  Bell.— It  is  an  old 
and  good  practice  among  sheep 
men  to  have  each  flock,  however 
small,  supplied  with  at  least  one 
sheep  bell,  such  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  19.  The  bell  is  fastened  to  a 
sheep  by  passing  a  leather  strap 
through  the  loop  at  the  top  of  the 
bell  and  buckling  it  securely  around 
the  neck  of  the  sheep.  The  tinkle  of  the  bell  will  locate  the 
flock  if  the  bell  sheep — that  is,  the  sheep  to  which  the  bell 
is  fastened — is  moving.  The  vigorous  ringing  of  the  bell  or 
bells,  it  is  claimed,  will  sometimes  frighten  dogs  when  they 
chase  a  flock  of  sheep,  and  is  also  likely  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  shepherd  or  other  persons  in  the  vicinity. 

24.  Lamb  Forceps. — Among  the  instruments  for  which 
a  shepherd  has  only  occasional  use  is  a  pair  of  lamb  forceps, 
also  known  as  lamb  and  pig  forceps.  These  are  used  in 
taking  lambs  from  ewes,  when  the  ewes  are  unable  to  give 
birth  to  the  lambs  without  assistance.     Lamb  forceps,  a  pair 


Fig.  19 


Pig.  20 


of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  20,  are  made  in  several  shapes  and 
forms.  The  instrument  illustrated  is  one  of  the  simply  con- 
structed forms  in  general  use  by  sheep  breeders.  It  consists 
of  two  pieces  of  nickel-plated  steel  riveted  together  to  form 


243— is 


24 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


33 


in    reality  two  instruments,  one   at  each  end  of  the  imple- 
ment.    In  the  hands  of  careful  and  experienced  shepherds  this 

instrument  may  often 
~(SsS»  be  the  means  of  sav- 
ing the  life  of  a  ewe 
FlG  21  or  of   a   ewe   and  a 

lamb    at   lambing  time.      Detailed    directions    for  their  use 
usually  accompany  each  pair  of  forceps. 

25.  Trocar. — An  instrument  always  found  in  the  fully 
equipped  shepherd's  outfit  is  the  trocar,  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  21.  This  instrument  is  intended  for  the  tapping  of 
bloated  or  hoven  animals,  and  is  much  better  than  a  pen- 
knife, which  is  some- 
times used  for  this 
purpose.  This  instru- 
ment consists  of  a 
handle  into  which  is 
fastened  a  piece  of 
round  -  pointed  steel, 
and  over  the  steel  is 
a  neatly  fitting  metal  sheath.  When  used,  the  point  of  the 
instrument  is  pushed  through  the  skin  and  into  the  stomach  of 
the  bloated  animal,  the  sheath  is  then  held  in  place  while  the 
steel  is  with  drawn.  The  gas  in  the  stomach  of  the  animal  then 
escapes  through  the  hollow  sheath  after  which  it  is  removed. 

26.  Shepherd's  Crook. — In  Fig.  22  is  shown  an  implement 
known  as  a  shepherd's  crook,  which  is  fastened  on  the  end 
of  a  staff  from  o  to  9  feet  in  lensrth.     This  is  a  most  convenient 


- 


implement  in  the  sheep  barn,  yard,  or  field,  when  it  is  desired 
to  catch  any  particular  sheep  in  the  flock. 


33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


25 


—A  pair  of  common  hand  sheep  shears 
The  essential  parts  of  a  shears  of  this 


27.     Sheep  Shears. 

is  shown  in  Fig.  23. 

type  are  two  blades, 

the     handle,    and     a 

spring.       The    spring 

consists  of  the  end  of 

the    shears    opposite 

the  blades,  and  is  usu- 
ally made  as  shown  in 

the  illustration  or  by 

one  solid  continuous 

steel   bow  connecting 

the  two  parts  of  the 

handle.      The  blades 

vary  in  length   from 

4  to  7  inches.     Shears 

of  this  kind  are  indis- 
pensable in  the  opera- 
tions   of    tagging, 

shearing,   or  clipping 

of  wool  in  some  way 

or  other   during    the 

year,  therefore,  at 
least  one  pair  of 
shears  should  be  on 
every  farm  on  which 
sheep  are  raised. 

A  small,  flexible- 
shaft  shearing  ma- 
chine that  is  oper- 
ated by  hand  power 
is  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

This  machine  con- 
sists of  a  metal  stand, 
at  the  top  of  which 
is  the  crank-handle 
and  a  metal  box  in  which  are  enclosed  the  gear-wheels.  The 
shears  are  connected  with  the  gear  by  means  of  a  system  of 


Fig    24 


26  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

shearing  shafts  connected  by  universal,  and  usually  ball-bear- 
ing, joints.  The  cutting  part  of  the  shears  consists  of  a  knife 
that  works  back  and  forth  over  a  comb  very  much  as  the 
knife  on  the  cutter  bar  of  a  mower  does  over  the  guards  of  the 
cutter  bar.  The  points  of  the  comb  project  beyond  the 
points  of  the  knife,  which  usually  has  three  divisions  triangu- 
lar in  shape.  They  separate,  support,  and  guide  the  fibers  of 
wool  to  the  cutting  edges  of  the  knife,  which  is  driven  by 
power  transmitted  by  the  flexible  shaft.  There  is  an  arrange- 
ment for  screwing  down  the  knife  to  make  it  fit  snugly  to  the 
comb.  Full  directions  for  the  use  and  care  of  the  shearing 
machine  should  accompany  each  machine. 

28.  Twine  for  the  Tying  of  Fleeces. — The  twine  that  has 
been  in  common  use  for  the  tying  of  fleeces  is  made  of  jute 
and  is  known  as  wool  twine.  Although  this  twine  is  accept- 
able to  wool  buyers,  it  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  to  the 
manufacturers  of  woolen  goods,  because  the  fibers  of  jute 
cling  to  the  wool  and  cannot  be  gotten  out  except  by  a 
laborious  and  expensive  process.  Some  wool  growers  have 
used  sisal,  or  binder  twine,  for  the  tying  of  fleeces.  This 
twine  is  made  of  coarse,  heavy  fibers,  which  are  more  diffi- 
cult and  expensive  to  remove  from  the  wool  than  the  fibers 
of  the  wool  twine.  "Wool  dealers  pay  so  much  less  for  wool 
tied  with  sisal  twine  that  it  is  poor  economy  for  wool  growers 
to  use  sisal  twine  for  this  purpose.  In  fact,  dealers  some- 
times refuse  to  purchase  clips  of  wool  if  sisal  twine  is  used  in 
tying  the  fleeces.  The  material  that  is  highly  recommended 
by  wool  dealers  and  manufacturers  for  the  tying  of  fleeces 
is  a  twine  made  of  paper,  and  is  known  as  paper  wool  twine. 
This  twine  is  but  little,  if  any,  more  expensive  than  the 
other  twines  and  there  seems  to  be  little  excuse  for  wool 
growers  not  using  it  instead  of  the  twines  that  are  objection- 
able to  the  wool  dealers. 

29.  Table  for  the  Tying  of  Wool. — The  plan  of  a  device 
used  for  the  tying  of  wool  into  neat  bundles  and  which  is 
variously  known  as  a  wool  table,  wool  box,  and  wool  board,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  25  (a).     This  table  is  best  constructed  of  three 


§33 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


27 


boards  of  light  lumber  12  inches  wide,  3  feet  long,  £  inch 
thick,  and  planed  on  both  sides.  The  board  for  the  middle 
of  the  table  is  cut  in  three  pieces,  each  1  foot  square,  and 
hinged  together  as  shown  on  the  lines  a  a.  The  side  boards 
are  hinged  to  the  center  square  on  the  lines  b  b.  On  each 
side  of  the  table  two  notches  c  are  cut  of  such  a  size  and 
shape  that  they  hold  firmly  in  place  the  ends  of  the  pieces 
of  twine  used  in  tying  the  bundles.  A  spring  d,  which  may 
be  made  of  hard  wood  or  of  steel,  is  set  into  each  of  the  side 
boards    in    the   manner  shown    in    cross-section    in    (b).     A 


a 


r\ 


-+ 


\U 


<c) 


(b) 


(a) 

Fn;.  25 

wooden  clamp  used  to  hold  the  side  boards  in  a  vertical 
position,  while  the  ends  of  the  pieces  of  twine  are  tied 
together,  is  shown  in  (c). 

When  the  table  is  to  be  used  it  is  laid  on  a  box  or  other 
suitable  support  of  a-  convenient  height  and  pieces  of  twine 
are  placed  in  the  position  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  and  their 
ends  drawn  tightly  in  the  notches.  A  fleece  is  then  placed  on 
the  table  with  the  outside  of  the  fleece  upwards,  the  staple 
neatly  collected,  and  the  edges  folded  over  toward  the  center. 
The  side  boards  are  then  raised  to  a  vertical  position  and  held 


28 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§33 


in  place  by  the  wooden  clamp ; 
next  the  end  pieces  of  the 
middle  board  are  raised  until 
they  snap  behind  the  springs, 
which  hold  them  in  a  verti- 
cal position.  The  fleece  is 
thus  enclosed  in  the  box  as 
shown  in  Fig.  26.  The  opr 
posite  ends  of  the  strings  are 
then  tied  together  and  the 
clamp  is  removed.  The  last 
operation     allows     the     side 

and  end  boards  to  drop,  leaving  the  fleece  tied  up  in  a  neat 

cubical  bundle. 


FEEDS   FOR    SHEEP 


SUCCULENT  FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP 

30.  Sheep,  like  other  animals  that  chew  their  cud,  thrive 
best  when  they  have  an  abundance  of  succulent  feed,  such 
as  is  furnished  by  green  pastures.  Most  successful  sheep 
raisers  have  found  that  it  pays  them  to  supplement  the 
common  grass  and  clover  pastures  with  special  pasture  crops 
and  with  other  crops  that  will  supply  succulent  feed  during 
the  winter,  when  the  pastures  are  either  frozen  and  undesir- 
able or  are  covered  with  snow.  The  feeds  specially  recom- 
mended for  these  purposes  are  rape,  thousand-headed  kale, 
cabbage,  root  crops,  pumpkins,  corn  silage,  and  rye. 

31.  Rape  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — One  of  the  best  succulent 
feeds  for  sheep  is  rape.  It  may  be  used  as  a  soiling  crop  for 
sheep,  but  the  more  general  and  usually  the  more  practical 
method  of  feeding  it  to  sheep  is  to  allow  the  flock  to  pasture 
in  the  rape  field.  The  .Dwarf  Essex  variety  is  the  most 
suitable  for  sheep  feeding. 

The  chief  merit  of  the  rape  crop  for  sheep  feed  is  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  grows  under  favorable  conditions  and 


§  33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  29 

the  palatability  of  the  feed.  It  produces  from  15  to  30  tons 
per  acre  of  a  luxuriant  forage  that  sheep  relish  very  much. 

If  the  rape  is  to  be  fed  as  a  soiling  crop,  the  field  sown  to 
rape  should  be  located  near  the  barn  or  yard  where  the  sheep 
are  kept,  because  such  a  location  requires  less  labor  to  cut 
and  haul  the  crop  to  the  sheep.  If  the  rape  is  to  be  pastured, 
it  is  advisable  to  have  the  field  of  rape  adjoining  a  grass 
pasture  so  that  the  sheep  may  be  changed  from  rape  to 
grass  and  vice  versa.  Sheep  not  accustomed  to  pasturing 
on  rape  should  not  be  turned  on  a  field  of  rape  and  allowed 
to  feed  on  it  without  restriction.  First,  they  should  be 
turned  on  a  grass  pasture  for  a  couple  of  hours  or  given  a 
fair  feed  of  hay,  and  then  turned  on  the  rape  for  a  couple  of 
hours  each  day  for  4  or  5  days,  after  which  they  may  be 
allowed  to  pasture  on  the  rape  all  day.  Sheep  unaccustomed 
to  rape  should  not  be  allowed  on  it  while  the  plants  are  wet, 
either  from  rain  or  from  dew,  because  wet  rape,  especially 
during  hot  weather,  is  likely  to  cause  bloating  or  diarrhea. 
These  troubles  are  particularly  likely  to  occur  if  sheep  are 
allowed  to  feed  on  frosted  rape,  or  if  hungry  sheep  are  allowed 
to  satisfy  their  hunger  on  rape.  In  the  latter  case,  if  the 
rape  is  frozen,  the  results  are  likely  to  be  fatal.  To  avoid 
these  dangers  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  use  of  a  few 
acres  of  this  most  valuable  succulent  sheep  feed,  the  rape 
field  should  be  adjacent  to  another  pasture  or  feed  lot  so  that 
the  sheep  may  be  turned  in  the  rape  during  the  day  and  in 
the  grass  pasture  or  feed  lot  for  the  night.  Rape  may  be 
sown  alone,  broadcasted,  or  drilled;  it  may  be  sown  in  the 
corn  field  just  before  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn;  or  it 
may  be  sown  in  the  spring  with  oats.  It  is  an  advantage, 
if  sown  alone,  to  have  the  seed  drilled  in  rows;  first,  in  the 
extra  cultivation  possible;  second,  in  the  greater  room  for 
the  plants;  third,  in  wasting  less  feed,  because  the  sheep  will 
stand  between  the  rows  and  do  not  trample  the  plants;  and 
fourth,  in  having  the  plants  more  convenient  for  cutting  if 
it  is  desired  to  practice  soiling. 

If  sown  in  the  corn  field,  it  is  best  to  broadcast  2  to  3  pounds 
of  seed,  before  the  cultivators.     This  can  be  done  most  easily 


30 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§  33 


by  the  sower  riding  a  horse,  in  which  position  he  is  above  the 
growing  corn  and  is  free  to  sow  the  seed  evenly.  If  the 
foliage  of  the  corn  is  not  too  dense,  the  rape  will  make  a  large 
quantity  of  forage  that  will  prove  especially  useful  to  those 
sheepmen  who  purchase  western  lambs  to  fatten  for  the  late 
fall  and  winter  markets.  The  most  and  probably  the  best 
feed  is  obtained  when  the  plants  have  attained  their  most 
luxuriant  growth,  which  usually  occurs,  if  the  seed  was  sown 


Fig.  27 


alone  and  the  plants  cultivated,  when  the  plants  are  about 
2  months  old.  In  seasons  of  especially  dry  weather,  the 
plants  become  somewhat  stringy  as  they  grow  old  and  are 
not  highly  relished  by  sheep,  but  in  seasons  of  abundant 
rainfall  the  plants  remain  fresh  and  crisp  until  after  heavy 
frosts. 

The  quantity  of  land  that  should  be  sown  to  rape  for  any 
number  of  sheep  will  vary  considerably,  depending  on  the 


§33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  31 

soil,  the  season,  and  the  quantity  and  nature  of  other  feeds 
that  are  given  to  the  sheep.  As  a  general  rule,  however, 
1  acre  of  rape  for  each  12  to  30  sheep  will  be  a  most  valuable 
addition  to  a  farmer's  supply  of  sheep  feed. 

32.  Kale  as  Feed  for  Sheep.— Thousand-headed  kale,  a 
field  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  27,  is  as  yet  used  to  a  very 
limited  extent  by  American  sheep  raisers.  Some  of  the 
more  progressive  breeders  have  experimented  with  it  and 
speak  very  favorable  of  it.  Its  appearance  would  perhaps 
be  crudely  described  by  saying  that  it  is  about  midway 
between  cabbage  and  rape.  It  is  generally  thought  to  be 
more  difficult  to  raise  than  rape;  but  it  is  less  watery  and  is 
considered  to  be  a  better  feed  for  sheep.  The  best  method 
of  growing  it  seems  to  be  to  plant  it  in  rows  18  inches  apart. 
When  it  is  well  started  it  should  be  thinned  to  leave  a  kale 
plant  about  every  8  inches.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  plants 
rather  close  together  or  they  will  become  too  large  and  the 
stems  woody. 

33.  Cabbage  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Breeders  of  pure-bred 
sheep  who  exhibit  their  flocks  at  the  fairs  extensively  find 
green  feed  of  some  kind  a  necessity  to  keep  the  show  flock 
in  good  condition  and  use  cabbage  to  a  large  extent  for  this 
purpose.  Cabbage  can  be  grown  in  almost  every  section  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  and  is  one  of  the  best  succu- 
lent feeds  for  sheep.  It  can  be  stored  and  kept  without 
difficulty  and  fed  during  late  fall  and  early  winter  when  the 
feeding  of  rape  might  prove  to  be  dangerous. 

34.  Root  Crops  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Root  crops,  if  properly 
grown  and  stored,  afford  a  very  desirable  succulent  feed  for 
sheep.  Some  one  has  aptly  said  that  well-preserved  root 
crops  carry  summer  succulence  into  the  winter  quarters  of 
the  sheep  fold,  creating  and  satisfying  the  appetite  of  the 
sheep  at  one  and  the  same  time.  Roots  form  an  important 
portion  of  the  supply  of  sheep  feed  used  by  the  British  and 
Canadian  sheep  growers,  who  are  among  the  best  sheep 
husbandmen.  Mangels,  sometimes  known  as  field  beets  or 
as  cattle  beets,  can  be  kept  easily  and,  for  this  reason  they 


32  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

are  especially  suitable  as  a  sheep  feed  during  late  winter  and 
spring.  At  this  time  mangels  do  not  have  the  tendency  to 
cause  digestive  trouble,  as  they  sometimes  do  when  fed 
shortly  after  they  are  harvested.  They  make  an  almost 
ideal  feed  for  ewes  that  have  suckling  lambs.  Mangels 
should  be  fed  very  sparingly  or  not  at  all  to  rams;  sugar 
beets  and  half-sugar  mangels  should  never  be  fed  to  rams 
and  sparingly  or  not  at  all  to  other  sheep. 

In  some  sections,  especially  in  the  sheep-raising  sections 
of  Great  Britain  and  Canada,  turnips  are  used  extensively 
as  sheep  feed,  and  meet  with  much  favor.  For  fall  feeding 
varieties  of  the  common  turnip  are  most  suitable,  but  for 
winter  feeding  rutabagas  are  superior  to  common  turnips. 
The  common  turnips  are  not  so  easily  kept  in  storage  as 
rutabagas,  and  rutabagas  cannot  be  kept  so  easily  as 
mangels.  It  has  been  claimed  by  some  investigators  that 
the  excessive  use  of  turnips  as  feed  for  pregnant  ewes  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  abortion  among  the  flocks  of 
Great  Britain. 

Kohlrabi  is  a  root  that  is  highly  recommended  as  a  sheep 
feed  and  has  seemingly  met  with  much  success  wherever  it 
has  been  used  as  such. 

35.  Pumpkins  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Pumpkins  as  feed  for 
sheep  are  not  generally  used  by  sheep  raisers,  but  those 
who  have  had  experience  with  them  strongly  recommend 
them  as  a  supplementary  feed  for  sheep  during  the  autumn 
and  the  early  winter  months.  Pumpkins  are  usually  grown 
in  corn  fields  along  with  the  corn,  but  they  may  be  planted 
in  a  separate  field.  A  good  plan  is  to  plant  pumpkin  seeds 
where  it  seems  advisable  to  replant  corn,  that  is,  wherever 
the  seed  corn  had  failed  to  grow.  By  this  plan  it  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  secure  from  2  to  10  tons  of  pumpkins  per  acre  without 
injuring  the  corn  crop. 

As  a  feed  for  sheep,  pumpkins  have  considerable  nutritive 
value  and  are  not  dangerous  in  any  way.  The  seeds  are 
known  to  be  a  good  vermifuge,  or  worm  expeller,  and  may 
be  of  a  distinct  medicinal  value  to  sheep  when  the  seeds  are 


§  33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  33 

freely  eaten  by  them.  A  good  method  of  feeding  pumpkins 
is  to  scatter  them  on  the  pasture  without  breaking  the  pump- 
kins or,  at  most,  only  a  few  of  them.  As  soon  as  the  sheep 
get  a  taste  for  them  they  will  gnaw  without  difficulty  into  the 
unbroken  pumpkins  and  eat  them.  It  is  believed,  too,  that 
pumpkins  will  keep  better  scattered  about  the  field  than 
when  piled  in  a  heap,  at  any  rate  until  cold  weather  sets  in 

36.  Corn  Silage  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Corn  silage  is  a  very 
desirable  feed  for  sheep,  and  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United 
States  it  is  one  of  the  most  practical  succulent  feeds  for  sheep 
during  the  winter.  The  corn  should  be  well  matured  for 
making  silage  for  sheep  feed.  Sweet  corn  makes  a  more 
desirable  silage  for  sheep  feeding  than  does  the  common 
field  corn,  although  the  latter  produces  a  larger  quantity 
per  acre.  Silage  must  be  fed  cautiously.  At  first,  sheep 
should  be  given  about  \  pound  daily  and  this  quantity 
gradually  increased  until  they  get  from  2\  to  3  pounds  each, 
The  refuse  silage,  if  any,  should  be  removed  from  the  feed 
trough  each  day.  Moldy,  sour,  or  frozen  silage  should  never 
be  fed  to  sheep,  because  such  silage  usually  causes  digestive 
troubles. 

37.  Rye  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — The  chief  value  of  rye  as  a 
feed  for  sheep  is  to  furnish  early  and  late  pasturage;  that 
is,  pasturage  during  the  late  fall  and  early  spring,  thereby 
extending  the  regular  pasturing  season  to  some  extent. 
Rye  should  have  sheep  turned  on  it  before  the  main  stem, 
or  stalk,  makes  its  appearance,  because  after  this  stage  of 
growth  sheep  show  no  special  fondness  for  it  and  if  they  can 
get  other  feed  they  will  allow  the  rye  to  grow.  If  rye  is 
sown  especially  for  sheep  pasture,  it  is  advisable  to  sow  from 
3  to  4  bushels  per  acre  instead  of  the  usual  quantity  of  from 
\\  to  2\  bushels  per  acre.  The  thicker  sowing  usually 
produces  finer  and  more  palatable  plants  than  those  best 
suited  to  produce  grain. 


34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  S  33 


DRY  ROUGHAGE  FOR  SHEEP 

38.  Hay  as  Feed  for  Sheep.  -Where  alfalfa  hay  can  be 
grown  or  secured  at  a  reasonable  price,  it  is  the  most  valuable 
roughage  that  can  be  secured  for  sheep.  When  once  accus- 
tomed to  alfalfa  sheep  become  very  fond  of  it,  and  because  of 
the  relatively  high  percentage  of  protein  that  alfalfa  con- 
tains it  is  a  most  excellent  supplement  to  corn  and  other 
grains  containing  a  relatively  low  percentage  of  protein. 

Next  in  value  to  alfalfa  hay  is  that  made  from  clovers. 
Red  and  Alsike  clover  hay  is  especially  recommended  for 
sheep  feeding.  The  coarse  stems  of  hay  made  from  Mammoth 
clover  reduce  its  value  somewhat  as  a  feed  for  sheep.  A  very 
good  hay  for  sheep  feeding  is  made  from  oats  and  peas 
grown  together.  Pea  straw  and  bean  straw  are  excellent 
roughage  feeds  for  sheep.  Bean  straw,  however,  is  likely 
to  cause  scours  in  sheep  if  it  is  fed  in  large  quantities  as  the 
only  roughage.  Of  the  two,  pea  and  bean  straw,  pea  straw 
is  undoubtedly  the  more  desirable.  Corn  stover  and  corn 
fodder  make  fair  roughage  for  sheep,  especially  if  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay  can  be  fed  with  them. 

Hay  made  from  timothy  and  from  the  different  varieties 
of  millets  is  poor  feed  for  sheep.  Such  hay  usually  contains 
too  large  a  percentage  of  woody  fiber,  or  if  the  hay  is  made 
before  the  woody  fiber  is  developed  in  the  plants  it  is  likely 
to  cause  scours  in  sheep.  If  hay  made  from  timothy  or  from 
millets  must  be  fed  to  sheep,  it  should  be  used  sparingly. 
Some  sheepmen  go  so  far  as  to  advise  selling  the  sheep  and 
the  hay  in  the  fall  rather  than  attempting  to  winter  sheep 
on  it.  If  hay  made  from  millets  after  the  seeds  have  hard- 
ened is  fed  to  sheep  it  is  believed  to  cause  a  derangement 
of  the  action  of  the  kidneys. 

39.  Mature  Peas  and  Pea  Vines  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — The 
feeding  of  mature  unharvested  peas  and  pea  vines  to  fatten- 
ing lambs  is  very  popular  where  the  climatic  conditions  are 
such  that  the  peas  will  mature  and  remain  in  the  field  in  an 
unspoiled  condition  until  eaten  by  the  sheep.     Such  regions 


§  33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  35 

have  a  climate  that  is  cool,  with  but  little  or  no  rainfall 
during  the  fall,  little  snow  fall,  and  the  air  is  so  dry  that  the 
moisture  from  the  snow  is  evaporated  as  fast  as  it  melts, 
thereby  keeping  the  soil  dry.  These  conditions  are  obtained 
in  certain  portions  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States, 
notably  in  certain  sections  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming.  In 
such  sections  the  pea  vines  grow  until  fall  and  ripen  without 
danger  from  rains,  which  would  blacken  the  vines  and  sprout 
the  grain,  thus  spoiling  the  crop  as  feed  for  sheep. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  the  feeding  of  peas  and  pea  vines 
is  that  the  lambs  are  put  on  full  feed  immediately  and  the 
supply  of  feed  decreases  as  time  advances;  the  reverse  order 
should  be  the  case.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  sheep 
feeders  keep  the  lambs  moving  to  a  fresh  quantity  of  peas 
every  few  days.  This  is  accomplished  by  having  several 
fields  of  peas  or  one  large  field  and  a  small  portion  cut  off 
by  temporary  fences  and  turning  the  lambs  onto  a  fresh 
portion  before  the  feed  in  the  first  has  become  sufficiently 
scarce  to  check  the  growth  of  the  lambs,  and  then  allow  hogs 
or  cattle  or  both  to  eat  what  peas  the  lambs  leave.  The 
more  common,  and  probably  the  more  practical,  method  is 
to  keep  a  herder  with  the  sheep  who  will  not  allow  them  to 
run  over  the  field,  but  who  will  permit  them  to  advance  a 
little  each  day  onto  a  fresh  area  of  peas.  Each  acre  of  mature 
peas  will  fatten  from  eight  to  fifteen  lambs. 


CONCENTRATES   FOR   SHEEP 

40.  Corn  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Indian  corn  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  valuable  grain  grown  in  the  United  States  for  fat- 
tening sheep  and  lambs,  and  it  may  advantageously  form  a 
large  part  and  in  some  instances  the  sole  concentrated  part 
of  their  ration.  It  has  a  much  more  limited  use  in  the  ration 
of  the  breeding  flock.  It  is  preeminently  a  fattening  feed 
and  is  usually  fed  in  the  shelled  form.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
grind  it  except  for  feeding  to  aged  ewes  with  poor  teeth. 
It  is  sometimes  fed  with  the  stalks  before  husking  and,  of 
course,  without  shelling.     The  use  in  this  form  is  not  com- 


36  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

mon,  and  is  not  generally  recommended.  In  the  shelled 
form,  there  is  no  grain  that  is  more  palatable  and  keenly 
relished  by  sheep.  Because  of  its  relatively  low  content 
of  protein  and  ash,  it  is  not  adapted  for  growing  young  lambs. 
If  a  few  ears  of  corn  are  placed  where  they  are  accessible 
to  young  lambs,  6  to  8  weeks  old,  they  will  shell  and  eat  the 
corn  with  much  apparent  satisfaction.  Fed  in  this  form, 
there  is  little  danger  that  they  will  get  too  much.  Before 
they  are  6  weeks  old,  it  is  desirable  to  shell  and  crack  the 
corn  for  them.  Corn  should  be  supplemented  with  a  good 
leguminous  roughage  like  clover  or  alfalfa,  and  it  is  generally 
advisable  to  include  oats,  bran,  or  oil  meal  as  a  part  of  the 
ration. 

41.  Oats  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Oats  come  nearer  being  an 
ideal  grain  feed  for  breeding  sheep  than  any  other  single 
grain  or .  concentrate.  They  are  nutritious  and  perfectly 
safe.  They  are  less  fattening  than  corn,  but  are  admirably 
suited  for  balancing  the  corn  ration  for  fattening  purposes. 
If  they  are  used  alone  or  in  mixtures  they  make  excellent 
feed  for  a  breeding  flock.  On  account  of  the  relatively  high 
price  that  oats  usually  command,  they  have  not  been  used  as 
extensively  as  feed  for  sheep  as  their  merit  justifies. 

42.  Barley  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Barley  is  about  midway 
between  oats  and  corn  in  regard  to  its  value  as  a  feed  for 
sheep.  Its  chief  use  is  in  feed  mixtures  intended  for  fatten- 
ing purposes.  Equal  parts  of  oats  and  barley  have  been 
found  to  be  of  about  the  same  value  as  equal  parts  of  oats 
and  corn  for  starting  lambs  on  full  feed.  In  some  sections 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  barley  is  more  available 
than  corn,  and  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  it  for  the  fatten- 
ing of  sheep. 

43.  Peas  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Peas  are  one  of  the  desir- 
able concentrates  for  use  in  sheep  feeding  and  may  be  fed 
unthrashed  or  thrashed  and  cracked  with  oats  to  good 
advantage.  In  Canada,  peas  are  more  largely  used  for  sheep 
feeding  than  in  the  United  States.  Care  must  be  exercised 
in  starting  to  feed  pea  grain  to  sheep,  because  sheep  are  so 


§  33  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


37 


fond  of  peas  that  they  will  eat  too  large  a  quantity  if  they  are 
allowed  to  do  so.  It  is  not  advisable  to  feed  pea  meal  alone 
on  account  of  its  tendency  to  become  sodden  and  to  compact 
in  the  stomachs  of  sheep.  The  meal  should  be  lightened 
by  mixing  it  with  bran,  oats,  or  corn. 

44.  Beans  as  Feed  for  Sheep.— Beans  mixed  with  three 
to  hve  times  their  quantity  of  corn  or  oats  make  good  feed 
for  sheep.  Beans  of  good  quality  are,  of  course,  usually  too 
valuable  to  use  for  sheep-feeding  purposes.  Sometimes, 
however,  they  become  damaged  by  unfavorable  weather  con- 
ditions at  the  time  of  harvest  to  such  an  extent  that  a  con- 
siderable quantity  becomes  available  for  purposes  other  than 
human  food.  Where  beans  are  grown  extensively  there  is 
always  a  limited  quantity  of  cull  beans  that  can  be  utilized 
as  feed  for  sheep. 

45.  Dried  Beet  Pulp  and  Dried  Molasses  Beet  Pulp  as 
Feed  for  Sheep.— Dried  beet  pulp  and  dried  molasses  beet 
pulp,  two  by-products  of  beet-sugar  factories,  are  valuable 
feeds  for  sheep  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  factories 
but  the  freight  on  this  bulky  material  makes  it  unprofitable  ' 
to  use  at  points  remote  from  the  factories.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  these  feeds  possess  about  the  same  feeding 
value  as  corn.  In  fact,  rations  containing  beet  pulp  have 
produced  more  mutton  at  less  cost  than  similar  rations  of 
corn  alone. 

46.  Wheat  Screenings  as  Feed  for  Sheep.— Wheat  screen- 
ings have  been  largely  used  for  the  fattening  of  sheep  in 
Canada,  in  the  wheat-growing  sections  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  a  more  limited  extent  in  those  sections  around  Chicago 
where  sheep  are  fattened  for  market.  It  is  good  evidence 
that,  where  available,  screenings  are  an  economical  feed  for 
fattening  sheep,  since  they  are  used  so  extensively  by  those 
feeders  who  annually  fatten  large  numbers  of  them. 

47.  Bran  as  a  Feed  for  Sheep.— Wheat  bran  is  one  of  the 
best  feeds  to  induce  an  abundant  flow  of  milk  in  ewes  suckling 
lambs.     However,  the  price  of  wheat  bran  is  usually  so  high 


38  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  33 

that  its  use  for  sheep-feeding  purposes  has  been  more  or  less 
on  the  decline.  There  is  no  question  as  to  its  being  desir- 
able where  it  is  available  and  the  price  is  such  as  to  make  it 
an  economical  feed. 

48.  Oil  Meal  as  Feed  for  Sheep. — Ground  linseed  cake, 
or  oil  meal,  pea  size,  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  desir- 
able feeds  containing  a  high  percentage  of  protein  that  is 
available  for  sheep-feeding  purposes.  It  makes  an  excellent 
supplementary  feed  to  corn.  It  is  extensively  used  in  Great 
Britain  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Canada.  It  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  to  induce  formation  of 
flesh  and  is  particularly  valuable  during  the  winter  season. 
The  value  of  oil  meal  for  preparing  sheep  for  the  show  ring 
is  generally  recognized  by  breeders  of  sheep  for  show  purposes. 
As  a  rule,  oil  meal  may  safely  form  one-tenth  of  the  concen- 
trated part  of  the  ration  of  either  fattening  sheep  and  lambs 
or  of  the  breeding  flock.  It  is  mildly  laxative  in  its  effects 
and  is  believed  to  exercise  a  beneficial  influence  on  the 
digestive  organs. 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 

(PART  2) 


DETAILS   OF   SHEEP   MANAGEMENT 


SELECTION    AND    CARE    OF    SIIEKI' 


SELECTION    OF    SHEEP 

1.  Foundation  Flock. — The  beginner  in  sheep  husbandry- 
should,  as  a  rule,  purchase  grade  rather  than  pure-bred  ewes, 
because  the  successful  breeding  of  pure-bred  sheep  requires 
special  fitness,  training,  and  ability  on  the  part  of  the  breeder, 
and  a  beginner  would  be  very  likely  to  fail  if  he  started  with 
a  pure-bred  flock.  But,  by  keeping  a  flock  of  grade  sheep 
for  several  years,  he  will  gain  experience  that  will  be  a  valu- 
able asset  to  him  in  case  he  desires  ultimately  to  engage  in 
the  breeding  of  pure-bred  sheep. 

Conditions  vary  so  much  from  year  to  year  that  little  can 
be  said  as  to  the  best  time  of  the  year  to  purchase  a  founda- 
tion flock  of  sheep.  However,  if  it  is  practicable  for  the 
beginner  to  obtain  the  help  of  a  reliable,  experienced  sheep- 
man to  assist  him  in  selecting  good  animals  for  his  foundation 
flock,  generally  it  may  be  purchased  to  advantage  in  the  late 
summer,  when  flock  owners  are  culling  out  and  selling  their 
surplus  stock.  Sheep  require  but  little  attention  during  the 
latter  part  of  summer,  and  by  securing  them  at  this  time  the 
purchaser  will  have  an  opportunity  to  become  familiar  with 
the  flock  before  the  important  matters  connected  with  their 
care  need  be  considered. 

COPYR1OHTE0    BY   INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK   COMPANY.        ENTERED  AT   STATIONERS-    HALL.    LONDON 

§34 

243—19 


2  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §34 

Usually  the  beginner  will  find  it  convenient  to  purchase 
his  foundation  flock  in  the  vicinity  of  his  farm;  but,  if  this 
is  not  practicable,  it  may  be  purchased  at  some  large  livestock 
market,  although,  in  the  latter  case,  he  is  likely  to  be  some- 
what handicapped.  If  he  lives  remote  from  the  market  his 
personal  expenses  and  the  freight  and  commission  charges 
will  be  practically  the  same  for  the  purchasing  of  twenty-five 
as  for  one  hundred  sheep. 

In  order  that  sellers  may  not  take  advantage  of  his  inex- 
perience, the  purchaser  should  be  in  frequent  correspondence 
with  some  reliable  commission  firm  from  which  valuable  help 
may  be  secured  at  a  minimum  cost. 

Ewes  selected  for  a  breeding  flock  should  not  be  over 
4  years  of  age  and  should  show  evidence  that  they  are  in 
vigorous  health.  They  should  also  be  in  good  flesh,  but  not 
fat,  rugged  in  constitution,  of  good  form,  sound  in  mouth 
and  udder,  and  bear  good  fleeces.  If  they  are  thin  it  indicates 
that  they  have  been  poorly  nourished  or  are  suffering  from 
some  disease,  and  in  either  case,  especially  the  latter,  they 
should  not  be  selected.  In  some  instances,  sheep  that  have 
been  poorly  nourished  for  a  short  time  and  are  temporarily 
out  of  condition,  but  which  are  healthy  and  thrifty,  can  be 
brought  back  to  condition  by  good  feeding.  Often  such  sheep 
can  be  purchased  at  a  price  sufficiently  low  to  be  attractive, 
but  in  such  cases  the  assistance  of  an  experienced  sheepman 
is  especially  desirable. 

2.  Determining  the  Age  of  Sheep  by  Their  Teeth. — In 
selecting  sheep  for  a  breeding  flock  it  is  very  desirable  to 
know  their  age.  Persons  familiar  with  the  teeth  of  sheep 
are  usually  able  to  determine  their  age  by  the  number,  shape, 
and  condition  of  the  front,  or  incisor,  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw. 
Sheep,  like  most  other  classes  of  animals,  have  two  sets  of 
teeth,  although  they  are  unlike  many  classes  of  animals  in 
that  they  have  no  front  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  They  have 
eight  front  teeth,  or  incisors,  in  each  set;  the  first  two  teeth 
of  the  first,  or  lamb,  set  of  teeth  are  present  at  birth  or  appear 
a  short  time  thereafter;  the  last  two,  one  on  each  side  of  the 


§34 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


front  of  the  jaw,  appear  in  from  0  to  9  months  after  birth, 
Lamb  teeth  are  smaller  and  are  usually  smooth  and  white  as 
compared  with  the  corrugated,  dark-colored,  permanent  teeth 
that  replace  them. 

The  middle  pair  of  lamb  teeth  are  replaced  by  a  pair  of 
permanent  teeth  when  the  lamb  is  from  10  to  IS  months  old. 
The  permanent  teeth  are  almost  twice  as  wide  and  much 
longer  than  the  lamb  teeth  on  either  side,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1  (a).  When  the  sheep  is  from  2  to  2\  years  old,  the 
second  pair  of  lamb  incisors,  one  tooth  on  each  side  of  the 
middle  pair  of  permanent  teeth,  is  replaced  by  permanent 
teeth,  as  shown  in  (b).  When  the  sheep  is  from  3  to  3£  years 
old,  the  third  pair  of  lamb  incisors  will  be  replaced  by  per- 


FlG.  1 

manent  teeth,  as  shown  in  (c).  The  fourth  pair  of  lamb 
incisors,  or  those  at  the  sides,  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth 
as  shown  in  (d),  when  the  sheep  is  from  4  to  4|  years  old. 
The  outer  incisors  are  never  as  large  as  those  in  the  middle. 
After  sheep  are  4i  years  old  it  is  difficult  to  tell  their  exact 
age.  However,  as  sheep  grow  older  their  teeth  usually  grow 
longer  and  narrower,  and  when  sheep  are  6  years  old  their 
teeth  begin  to  resemble  shoe  pegs  in  shape.  Although  if 
sheep  are  living  on  short  pasturage,  and  have  to  bite  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  sand  with  the  grass,  they  wear  their 
teeth  short  even  in  old  age. 


3.  Selection  of  Ram. — The  breed  that  is  to  be  raised  or 
used  in  improving  the  flock  is  the  first  matter  to  be  con- 
sidered in  selecting  a  ram  for  a  flock.  A  careful  study  of  the 
characters  of  the  various  breeds  as  given  in  another  Section 
will  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  breed  that  is  best  adapted  to 
certain  conditions. 


4  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

The  ram  selected  should  be  masculine  in  appearance,  com- 
pact in  body,  short  in  the  legs,  have  a  short,  thick  neck,  a 
broad,  short  head,  well-sprung  ribs,  and  carry  a  good,  even 
fleece  of  fine  quality  for  the  breed.  The  ram  should  give 
proof  of  being  vigorous  and  strong  in  constitution,  and  be 
free  from  any  tendency  toward  delicacy.  A  yearling  or  a 
2-year-old  ram  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  lamb.  The  continued 
selection  of  high-class  individuals  as  it  becomes  necessary  to 
purchase  new  rams  will,  with  systematic  and  judicious  methods 
of  feeding,  breeding,  and  management,  bring  about  constant 
improvement  in  the  flock. 


CARE     OF    SITEEP 

4.     Handling  of  the  Flock  on  Its  Arrival  at  the  Farm. — In 

case  the  flock  is  purchased  in  the  open  market,  the  sheep  are 
likely  to  arrive  at  the  farm  in  a  hungry,  thirsty,  and  more 
or  less  exhausted  condition ;  therefore,  careful  attention  should 
be  given  to  them.  They  should  not  be  turned  on  a  luxuriant 
pasture  of  clover  or  rape,  but  should  be  given  a  light  feed  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  mixed  hay,  plenty  of  good  clean  water,  and 
should  be  kept  in  a  lot  for  a  couple  of  days.  They  should 
then  be  dipped,  as  described  elsewhere,  and  turned  on  a 
pasture  in  which  there  is  some  shade  and  the  grass  is  rather 
short.  When  the  flock  is  first  placed  on  pasture,  a  small 
handful  of  salt  for  each  ten  sheep  should  be  sprinkled  on  the 
ground  every  3  or  4  days  until  they  have  become  accustomed 
to  it,  after  which  they  may  be  allowed  all  the  salt  they  will 
eat.  As  a  rule,  sheep  require  but  little  more  feed  than 
pasture  during  the  summer  season.  They  enjoy  and  thrive 
best  on  pastures  containing  mixed  grasses,  such  as  blue  grass, 
White  and  Red  clovers,  orchard  grass,  and  timothy.  The 
pasture  should  be  well  fenced,  as  sheep  easily  contract  the 
habit  of  jumping  over  poor  fences,  and  if  once  they  get  the 
habit  of  jumping,  they  take  on  some  of  the  goat  character- 
istics of  climbing  over  fences  as  well  as  jumping  over  them. 
Such  a  flock  becomes  a  constant  source  of  annoyance.  As 
the    time    for   breeding   approaches,    the    ewes    should    have 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  5 

access  to  more  luxuriant  pasture  than  they  have  had  during 
the  summer;  if  better  pasture  is  not  available,  each  should 
be  fed  daily  about  J  pound  of  oats  or  of  oats  and  shelled 
corn  mixed. 

5.  Care  of  a  Ram. — During  the  non-breeding  season  a 
ram  should  be  kept  in  a  field,  lot,  or  yard  with  a  few  other 
sheep  with  him  for  company.  He  should  have  access  to  pure 
water  and  shade,  and  should  have  enough  feed  to  keep  him 
in  good  condition  but  not  enough  to  fatten  him.  Frequently 
a  small  apple  orchard  is  a  desirable  place  in  which  to  keep 
the  ram.  If  during  the  non-breeding  season  ewes  are  kept 
in  the  same  enclosure  with  a  ram,  they  should  be  separated 
from  him  about  a  month  before  the  breeding  season  begins. 
If  the  ram  is  not  in  strong  condition  he  should  be  given  a 
small  feed  of  oats  and  bran  or  similar  feed  twice  daily  until 
the  breeding  season  is  over. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  placing  a  ram  in 
an  enclosure  in  which  sheep  suffering  from  internal  parasites 
have  been  previously  kept. 

6.  Care  of  Pregnant  Ewes. — Pregnant  ewes  require  much 
more  care,  especially  in  the  way  of  shelter,  than  do  fattening 
sheep  or  lambs.  As  far  as  practicable,  breeding  ewes  should 
be  kept  dry,  because  nothing  is  more  disastrous  to  the  health 
and  thrift  of  sheep,  and  especially  of  pregnant  ewes,  than  to 
compel  them  to  go  about  with  wet  wool  and  wet  feet.  Dry 
cold  is  not  injurious  to  sheep,  but  they  should  not  be  subjected 
to  drafts.  In  fact,  during  winter,  cool  shelter  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  warm  barns,  particularly  where  ewes  are  to  be 
turned  out  in  the  open  most  of  the  time  and  housed  at  night. 
In  many  instances  it  has  proved  good  practice  to'  so  arrange 
the  shelter  and  yard,  or  lot,  that  the  ewes  may  go  out  and  in 
at  will.  The  ewes  may  prefer  to  spend  a  good  part  of  their 
time  in  the  open  and  should  be  allowed  to  do  so;  but  during 
storms  they  should  receive  shelter  in  a  barn  or  shed,  to  which 
they  have  access  at  all  times.  However,  if  sheep  fail  to  go, 
of  their  own  accord,  under  available  shelter,  but  must  be 


6  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

driven  into  it  during  storms,  there  is  usually  something  wrong 
with  the  shelter. 

Although  exercise  is  an  important  feature  in  promoting  the 
health  and  thriftiness  of  a  breeding  flock,  the  ewes  should 
not  be  allowed  to  roam  over  large  pastures  during  the  winter 
months.  Such  exercise  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  ewes 
to  become  restless,  and  the  cold,  scanty  feed  that  they  are 
likely  to  pick  up  provides  them  with  but  little  nourishment. 
If  the  lots  in  which  the  ewes  are  confined  are  dry  and  clean, 
a  good  way  to  allow  the  sheep  to  exercise  is  to  scatter  their 
roughage  thinly  over  the  ground.  Each  ewe  will  then  take 
a  certain  amount  of  desirable  exercise  -in  walking  about  the 
lot  to  get  her  share  of  the  feed. 

Pregnant  ewes  should  not  be  chased  by  dogs,  driven  through 
mud,  compelled  to  jump  over  obstacles,  or  allowed  to  crowd 
through  narrow  doorways  or  openings.  If,  at  any  time,  it 
is  found  necessary  to  have  the  sheep  brought  rather  closely 
together,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  quietly  handled 
and  are  not  allowed  to  crowd  or  huddle  too  closely  together, 
because  crowding  and  rough  handling  are  likely  to  cause 
abortion. 

7.  Feeding  of  Pregnant  Ewes. — Pregnant  ewes  should  be 
kept  in  good  condition,  but  should  not  be  fattened.  The 
coarser  roughage,  such  as  corn  stover  or  corn  fodder,  intended 
for  the  ewes  should  be  fed  to  them  during  the  fall  and  early 
winter.  Such  feeds  deteriorate  through  exposure  to  the 
weather,  and  besides,  pregnant  ewes  thrive  better  when  such 
feeds  are  given  during  the  early  part  of  the  gestation  period 
than  when  they  are  given  during  the  last  part  of  it.  A  good 
condition  of  the  ewes  is  usually  insured  if  they  are  supplied 
with  some  succulent  feed  during  the  entire  gestation  period. 
However,  when  the  feeder  has  only  a  limited  supply  of  suc- 
culent feed,  it  is  especially  beneficial  if  fed  to  the  ewes  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  gestation  period,  and  after  they  have 
given  birth  to  lambs.  Four  rations  that  have  been  fed  with 
satisfactory  results  for  a  period  of  84  days  to  pregnant  ewes 
weighing  about  150  pounds  each  are  given  in  Table  I. 


§34 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


TABLE   I 

RATIONS     FOR    AND    DAILY     (.A  INS    BY    PREGNANT    EWES 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


Shelled  corn 

Corn  silage 

Mixed  hay 

Whole  oats 

Corn  silage 

Mixed  hay 

Wheat  bran 

Corn  silage 

Mixed  hay 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Corn  silage 

Mixed  hay 


Quantity 
per  Day 
Pounds 

Daily  Gain 

per  Head 

Pounds 

•5 

2-5 

•23  + 

2.0 

•5 

2-5 

•23- 

2.0 

•5 

2-5 

.20  + 

2.0 

•5 

2-5 

24  + 

2.0 

Several  rations  for  pregnant  ewes  weighing    from   140  to 
160  pounds  are  given  in  the  accompanying  list. 


Suggested  Rations  for  Preg 

Rations  Pounds 

No.  I— 

Shelled  corn  or  oats  . .     .4 

Wheat  bran 1 

Corn  silage 2.0 

or  root  crops 3.0 

Clover  hay 2.0 

No.  2— 

Shelled  corn  or  oats.  .     .4 

Wheat  bran 1 

Corn  silage 2.0 

or  root  crops 3.0 

Alfalfa  hay 2.0 


nant  Ewes  not  ox  Pasture 

Rations  Poinds 

No.  3— 

Shelled  corn  or  oats.  .     .4 

Corn  silage 2.0 

or  root  crops 3.0 

Soybean  hay 2.5 

No.  4— 

Oats  or  shelled  corn.  .     .4 

Wheat  bran 1 

Corn  silage 2.0 

or  root  crops 3.0 

Corn  fodder 1.0 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  .  1.5 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§34 


Suggested  Rations  for  Pregnant  Ewes  not  on  Pasture 


Rations  Pounds 

No.  5— 

Shelled  corn 4 

Wheat  bran 1 

Corn  silage 2.0 

or  root  crops 3.0 

Oat  or  wheat  straw ...  1.0 
Clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  .  1.5 

No.  6— 

Shelled  corn 3 

Oats 2 

Wheat  bran 2 

Clover,  alfalfa,  or  soy- 
bean hay 2.2 

No.  7— 

Shelled  corn 2 

Oats 2 

Wheat  bran 2 

Oil  meal 5 

Corn  fodder 1.0 

Clover,  alfalfa,  or  soy- 
bean hay 2.0 

No.  8— 

Shelled  corn 2 

Oats 3 

Wheat  bran 2 

Oil  meal 1 

Corn  fodder 3.0 


Rations  Pounds 

No.  9— 

Shelled  corn 3 

Oats 2 

Wheat  bran 2 

Oil  meal 1 

Oat  or  wheat  straw ...  1.5 

No.  10— 

Shelled  corn 2 

Oats 2 

Wheat  bran 1 

Oil  meal 1 

Corn  silage 2.5 

or  root  crops 3.8 

Corn  fodder 2..1 

or  oat  straw 1.0 

No.  11— 

Shelled  corn  or  oats ...     .5 

Wheat  bran 2 

Oil  meal 1 

Timothy  hay  (not  ad- 
visable to  use) 1.5 

No.  12— 

Shelled  corn  or  oats 4 

Wheat  bran 2 

Oil  meal 1 

Corn  silage 2.5 

or  root  crops 3.8 

Timothy  hay  (not  ad- 
visable to  use) 1.2 


Note. — Wheat,  barley,  and  spelt  closely  approach  corn  and  oats 
in  feeding  value  if  used  as  suggested  above.  Gluten  feed  and  cotton- 
seed meal  approach  oil  meal,  but  they  are  less  satisfactory  to  use. 

8.  Care  of  the  Ewes  With  Suckling  Lambs.— After  lambs 
are  about  2  weeks  old  their  appetites  and  requirements  for 
milk  are  considerable;  and  an  effort  should  be  made  by  the 
flock  master  to  feed  the  ewes  such- a  ration  that  they  will 


§34 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


give  a  liberal  quantity  of  milk  without  seriously  reducing  their 
flesh  and  constitutional  vigor.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  ewes, 
especially  those  that  are  giving  a  large  quantity  of  milk,  will 
become  somewhat  reduced  in  flesh  while  they  are  suckling 
vigorous  lambs,  but  this  reduction  in  flesh  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  go  too  far. 

During  the  period  that  the  lambs  are  suckling  and  the  ewes 
are  yarded  at  the  barns  and  kept  in  a  dry  lot,  it  is  essential 

TABLE    II 

SUGGESTED    DAILY    RATIONS    FOR    EWES    WITH    SUCKLING 

LAMBS 


Kind  of  Feed 


Mixture  of: 

Shelled  corn,  5  parts  by 

weight 

Whole  oats,  5  parts  by 

weight 

Wheat  bran,  2  parts  by 

weight 

Oil    meal,    1    part    by 

weight 

Corn  silage 

Root  crops 

Clover,  alfalfa,  or  soybean 

hay 

Corn  stover 

Oat  straw 


No.  of  Ration 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

1-33 

i-33 

1-33 

1.60 

i-33 

3.00 

4.00 

2.50 

3.00 

5.00 

2.50 

2.00 

2.50 

2.50 

3.00 

1-5° 
2.00 

1.40 


2.50 
2.50 

1.50 

2.00 


to  provide,  daily,  grain  or  concentrates  at  the  rate  of  from 
1  to  2  pounds  per.  head,  the  quantity  depending  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  ewes  and  their  size.  These  concentrates  should 
be  of  such  a  nature  that  they  will  have  a  tendency  to  enable 
the  ewes  to  produce  a'large  quantity  of  milk ;  oats,  wheat  bran, 
oil  meal,  and  corn  are  all  useful  concentrates  in  a  ration  for 


10  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  |  34 

ewes ;  among  the  roughages,  corn  silage,  roots,  clover,  alfalfa, 
soybean  hay,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  corn  stover  and  oat 
straw  are  good  feeds.  As  a  rule,  after  a  liberal  quantity  of 
concentrates  has  been  provided,  the  ewes  should  have  all  the 
roughage  that  they  will  consume.  The  importance  of  suc- 
culent feeds,  such  as  corn  silage  and  roots,  can  not  be  too 
strongly  emphasized. 

Six  suggested  rations  for  ewes  that  weigh  from  140  to 
160  pounds,  are  kept  in  a  yard  or  dry  lot,  and  have  suckling 
lambs,  are  given  in  Table  II. 

9.  Feeding  of  Suckling  Lambs. — The  lambs  will,  at  an 
early  age,  need  special  attention.  If  given  the  opportunity, 
they  will  frequently  begin  to  eat  grain  and  roughage  when 
they  are  from  2  to  3  weeks  old,  at  which  age  feed  should  be 
given  to  them  in  small  quantities.  They  usually  learn  to  eat 
by  following  the  example  of  their  mothers  and  of  older  lambs. 
Crushed  oats,  corn  meal  of  the  pea  size,  and  wheat  bran  are 
good  feeds  for  young  lambs,  and  at  5  to  G  weeks  of  age  whole 
grains  may  be  fed  to  them.  As  soon  as  the  lambs  begin  to 
eat  concentrates  and  roughages,  and,  in  fact,  as  an  aid  in 
teaching  them  to  eat  such  feeds,  a  separate  place  for  feeding 
them  should  be  provided;  the  lambs  should  have  constant 
access  to  this  place  and  their  dams  should  be  excluded. 
Such  places  are  usually  referred  to  as  lamb  creeps ;  they  should 
be  built  in  the  lightest  part  of  the  barn;  in  fact,  if  the  sun 
shines  into  the  creeps  much  of  the  day,  so  much  the  better. 
The  creeps  should  be  separated  from  the  main  part  of  the  barn 
or  the  pen  in  which  the  ewes  are  kept  by  upright  slats  from 
4  to  0  inches  wide  and  fastened  in  a  frame  made  so  that  the 
distance  between  the  slats  may  be  varied  from  about  7  inches, 
while  the  lambs  are  young  and  small,  to  greater  distances  as 
the  lambs  grow  larger.  The  slats  may  be  held  in  place  by 
wooden  pins  or  by  iron  bolts  placed  through  the  frame  and 
the  slats  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom.  The  edges  of  the  slats 
and  all  other  material  used  in  the  creeps  and  against  which 
the  lambs  may  rub,  should  be  rounded  so  as  not  to  catch 
and  pull  the  wool  from  them. 


§34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  11 

10.  Pasturing  of  Ewes  and  Lambs. — The  ewes  and  the 
lambs  are  usually  turned  on  pasture  as  soon  as  the  pasture 
crops  have  made  a  good  start  in  the  spring,  although  the 
change  from  rather  close  confinement  and  largely  dry  feed 
to  the  range  of  the  pasture  and  its  more  succulent  feed  should 
be  made  with  as  little  abruptness  as  possible.  This  change 
should  be  brought  about  by  turning  the  ewes  and  lambs  on 
pasture  in  the  morning,  bringing  them  to  the  barn  early  in 
the  evening,  and  keeping  them  there  for  the  night.  While 
at  the  barn  they  should  be  fed  a  ration  of  concentrates  and 
dry  roughage.  The  exact  length  of  time  for  the  continued 
shelter  and  feeding  must  be  determined  by  the  way  the  ewes 
and  lambs  thrive.  If  the  pasture  is  a  good  one,  the  feeding 
of  grain  and  roughage  for  from  2  to  3  weeks  while  they  are  on 
pasture  may  be  sufficient;  but,  if  the  pasture  is  a  poor  one, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  continue  to  feed  the  grain  ration  and 
the  roughage  for  a  month  or  more. 

11.  Weaning  and  Later  Care  of  Lambs.— A  definite  date 
can  not  be  given  for  the  weaning  of  lambs,  because  the  time 
for  this  depends  on  the  age  of  the  lambs  and  on  the  time  of 
the  year  that  they  are  dropped.  Thus,  lambs  dropped  in 
February  should  be. weaned  in  July,  and  lambs  dropped  in 
May  should  not  be  weaned  until  August.  When  a  lamb  is 
old  enough  to  take  care  of  itself,  which  will  be  in  from  3  to 
5  months,  it  is  better  for  both  the  lamb  and  its  dam  for  the 
lamb  to  be  weaned,  because  the  lamb  should  not  get  in  the 
habit  of  completely  depending  on  milk  for  nourishment, 
and  the  ewe  should  be  allowed  time  to  recuperate  and  gain 
some  flesh  before  being  bred  again. 

Where  practicable,  lambs  should  be  taught  to  eat  grain, 
as  has  been  mentioned,  before  they  are  weaned,  and  when 
they  are  separated  from  their  dams  the  lambs  should  be 
placed  on  the  best  pasture  available,  so  that  the  succulent 
pasturage  will,  in  a  measure,  take  the  place  of  their  mothers' 
milk.  The  pasture  for  the  lambs  and  also  that  of  the  ewes 
must  be  well  fenced,  for  the  ewes  and  lambs  make  strenuous 
efforts  to  get  together.     In  addition  to  good   pasture,   the 


12  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §34 

lambs  should  have  a  light  grain  ration.  If  it  is  desired 
to  fatten  the  lambs,  the  grain  ration  should  be  continued 
after  the  lambs  are  reconciled  to  their  new  conditions;  if 
they  are  not  to  be  fattened  before  winter  sets  in,  the  sup- 
plementary grain  ration  may  be  discontinued,  provided  they 
have  good  pasture. 

The  ewes  from  which  the  lambs  have  been  removed  should 
be  placed  on  a  rather  short  pasture  to  check  their  milk  flow. 
It  may  be  necessary,  in  order  to  assist  in  drying  up  the  milk 
without  injury  to  the  udder,  to  milk  some  of  the  ewes  that 
give  large  quantities  of  milk.  The  milking  is  done  every 
other  day  for  a  week  or  10  days. 

12.  Fattening  of  Lambs. — Feeds  that  are  grown  on  the 
farm,  or  that  can  be  secured  at  reasonable  prices,  should  be 
selected  by  the  farmer  for  fattening  a  flock  of  lambs.  Feed 
of  good  quality  must,  of  course,  be  secured  if  success  in  fatten- 
ing is  to  be  achieved,  and  a  ration  must  be  made  from  such 
feeds  as  the  lambs  relish.  A  slight  change  of  rations  is  often 
one  of  the  best  means  of  increasing  the  appetites  of  the  lambs, 
but  changes  from  rations  of  a  succulent  nature  to  those  of  a 
dry  nature  should  be  made  gradually  or  digestive  troubles 
will  generally  be  the  result.  One  of  the  commonest  errors 
made  by  novices  in  the  feeding  of  lambs  is  that  of  feeding 
them  too  much.  Lambs  thrive  best  if  they  receive  only  such 
a  quantity  and  such  kinds  of  feed  as  will  supply  them  with 
the  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  that  they  can  assimilate. 
If  more  feed  than  this  is  given  to  them,  it  is  wasted  and  is, 
therefore,  a  loss  to  the  feeder. 

In  general,  it  is  recommended  that  the  fattening  period 
be  commenced  by  feeding  a  relatively  large  quantity  of  dry 
roughage  and  a  small  quantity  of  concentrated  feed  and  grad- 
ually reversing  this  order  as  the  period  of  feeding  advances. 
Thus,  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period  about  £  pound 
of  concentrated  feed  and  about  2  pounds  of  dry  roughage 
may  be  fed  to  each  lamb;  near  the  end  of  the  period  each 
lamb  may  be  fed  about  2  pounds  of  concentrated  feed  and 
\  pound  of  dry  roughage. 


§34 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


13 


The  kind  of  crops  most  available  as  feed  for  sheep,  will  to 
a  large  extent  determine  the  materials  that  should  be  selected 
to  make  the  most  desirable  ration  for  the  fattening  of  lambs. 
However,  practical  sheep  feeders  in  various  sections  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  recommend  as  satisfactory,  the 
rations  given  in  the  accompanying  list.  They  were  fed 
to  lambs  weighing  about  70  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the 
feeding  period  and  at  the  end  of  a  feeding  period  of  14  weeks 
the  lambs  weighed  from  95  to  105  pounds. 


Daily  Rations  for  Fattening  One   Lamb 

Belt 
Rations  Pounds 

No.  1— 

Shelled  corn 1.4 

Clover  hay l.l 

No.  2— 

Shelled  corn 1.0 

Clover  hay 2.0 

No.  3— 

Shelled  corn 1.2 

Linseed  meal 4 

Oat  straw  or  shredded 
or  cut  corn  stover.  .   1.0 


in  the  Corn 


Rations  Pounds 

No.  4— 

Shelled  corn 1.0 

Soybeans 5 

Soybean  straw 5 

Oat  straw 5 

No.  5 -— 

Shelled  corn ].0 

Linseed  meal 3 

Silage 1.5 

Oat  straw 0 


Daily  Ration  for  Fattening  One  Lamb  in  the  Western 
Portion  of  the  United  States 
Rations  Pounds 

No.  1— 

Barley 


Pounds 


1.5 

Alfalfa  hay 15 

No.  2— 

Barley 8 

Alfalfa  hay 2  8 

No.  3— 

Barley 1.4 

Wheat  bran 3 

Prairie  hay 1.0 


Rations 

No.  4— 

Oats 7 

Peas 7 

Oat  straw 5 

Pea  straw 1.0 

No.  5— 

Barley 1.5 

Sugar-beet  pulp  (wet)  G.O 
Prairie  hay 5 


14  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §34 

Daily  Rations  for  Fattening  One  Lamb  in  Canada  or 

in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  Portions  of 

the  United  States 

Rations                          Pounds  Rations                          Pounds 

No.  1—  No.  3— 

Barley 1.3  Barley 5 

Linseed  meal 2  Peas 5 

Clover  hay 1.2  Wheat  bran 2 

No.  2—  Mixed  hay 1.0 

Oats 4  Root  crops 1.2 

Barley 4  No.  4 — 

Peas 4  Barley 1.4 

Wheat  bran .2  Linseed  meal 1 

Root  crops 1.4  Silage 2.0 

Pea  straw 5  Mixed  hay 5 

Oat  straw .3 

13.  Docking  of  Lambs. — Docking,  or  the  removal  of  the 
tail,  is  usually  recommended  for  all  lambs  that  are  not  to  be 
slaughtered  before  they  are  90  or  100  days  old.  However, 
some  successful  sheep  raisers  in  certain  dry  sections  of  the 
United  States  do  not  dock  their  wether  lambs,  and  meet 
with  no  bad  results;  but  this  practice  cannot  be  recommended 
in  sections  where  a  wet  climate  is  likely  to  prevail  for  a  part 
of  the  year.  The  tail  is  cut  off  because  it  is  of  little  or  no 
value  to  the  flock  owner,  is  an  encumbrance  to  the  animal, 
and  causes  its  hind  parts  to  become  foul;  and  by  cutting  off 
the  tail  the  animal  appears  more  blocky,  that  is,  better  filled 
out,  than  with  it. 

The  ewe  lambs  should  be  docked  even  in  the  sections  where 
the  wether  lambs  are  not,  because  the  ewes  are  more  likely 
to  become  foul  behind  than  are  the  wether  lambs.  Docking 
should  be  done  in  from  10  to  14  days  after  the  birth  of  the 
lambs,  because  at  that  age  the  shock  to  them  is  very  slight 
and  the  parts  heal  more  readily  than  when  they  are  older. 
The  danger  of  having  the  wounds  caused  by  docking  become 
infested  with  maggots  is  less  if  the  operation  is  performed 
early  in  the  season  before   flies  become  numerous.     If  the 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  15 

docking  is  done  late  in  the  season,  the  stumps  of  the  tails 
should  be  watched  closely  until  they  are  thoroughly  healed; 
if  maggots  are  discovered  in  any  of  the  wounds  they  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  a  disinfectant  and  a  fly  repellent 
applied. 

14.  The  methods  of  docking  are  numerous.  Some  flock 
masters  use  a  pocket  knife ;  others  use  a  chisel  and  light  mallet ; 
still  others  prefer  to  use  the  docking  pincers.  When  a  knife 
is  to  be  used,  an  assistant  takes  the  lamb  in  his  arms,  places 
its  back  against  his  shoulder,  and  holds  it  firmly.  The  skin 
of  the  tail  is  pulled  toward  the  body,  and  the  tail  is  severed 
at  about  1  inch  from  the  body  with  one  stroke  of  the  knife. 
There  will  be  sufficient  skin  to  form  a  flap  to  cover  the  cut, 
and  the  application  of  a  disinfectant  or  a  daub  of  tar  to  keep 
off  the  flies  will  complete  the  job.  The  usual  method  of  using 
the  mallet  and  chisel  is  as  follows :  Lay  the  lamb,  with  its  belly 
upwards,  on  a  plank  or  table,  pull  the  skin  of  the  tail  toward 
its  body,  place  the  chisel  where  the  cut  is  to  be  made,  and 
strike  the  chisel  a  light  blow  with  the  mallet,  when  the  tail 
will  be  severed.  To  complete  the  operation,  pull  the  skin 
toward  the  cut  so  as  to  cover  it,  and  daub  a  little  tar  or  apply 
a  disinfectant  and  fly  repellent  to  the  wound.  A  much  more 
simple  method  of  using  the  chisel  and  mallet  for  docking  pur- 
poses is  to  take  the  lamb  in  the  arms,  hold  it  with  its  back 
upwards,  place  the  hind  quarters  of  the  lamb  close  to  an 
upright  hardwood  post  with  a  smooth,  flat  top  over  which  the 
tail  of  the  lamb  is  placed  on  a  line  with  its  back.  An  assist- 
ant then  places  the  chisel  in  place  and  strikes  the  blow  by 
which  the  tail  is  severed. 

The  most  expeditious  and  the  safest  method  of  docking, 
however,  is  to  use  a  pair  of  docking  pincers.  The  docking 
pincers  are  heated  to  a  red  heat,  the  animal  is  held  in  position 
by  an  assistant,  and  the  operator  severs  the  tail  with  one  cut 
of  the  pincers.  The  wound  generally  heals  quickly,  because 
the  hot  iron  sears  the  exposed  flesh  and  little  or  no  bleeding 
takes  place.  It  is  advisable,  however,  to  apply  tar  or  a  dis- 
infectant and  fly  repellent  to  the  wound. 


16  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

15.  Castration. — Castration  should  be  performed  on  all 
male  lambs  that  are  to  be  fed  for  market,  when  they  are  from 
10  to  14  days  old.  If  it  is  not  done  while  the  lambs  are 
young  they  soon  show  a  thickening  of  the  neck  and  other 
signs  of  masculinity  and  will  never  develop  into  first-class 
market  animals,  no  matter  how  well  they  may  be  fed.  It  is 
best  to  have  two  persons  work  together  in  castrating,  one  to 
hold  the  lamb  in  position  and  the  other  to  use  a  knife  or  a  pair 
of  docking  pincers.  The  lamb  should  be  held  against  the 
shoulder,  back  downwards,  by  an  assistant,  who  grasps  a 
fore  and  a  hind  leg  to  keep  the  animal  steady.  The  operator 
pushes  the  testicles  back  toward  the  body,  then  with  a  sharp 
knife,  sometimes  with  the  docking  pincers,  cuts  off  about 
a  third  of  the  scrotum,  or  purse.  The  testicles  are  then 
worked  out  until  they  can  be  grasped  by  the  finger  and 
thumb  by  which  they  and  the  adhering  cords  are  drawn 
completely  away.  If  done  properly,  there  is  little  danger 
of  trouble  from  the  operation.  A  mixture  of  lard  and  turpen- 
tine or  a  good  coal-tar  disinfectant  mixed  with  vaseline 
should  be  used  to  daub  on  the  wound. 

In  the  castration  of  old  rams,  the  docking  pincers  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  To  perform  this  operation,  the  ram  is 
placed  on  his  rump  and  held  by  one  person;  the  scrotum 
and  testicles  are  held  away  from  the  body  and  severed  at 
one  operation  by  the  use  of  pincers,  which  are  heated  to  a 
red  heat.  Tar  or  a  disinfectant  and  fly  repellent  is  then 
applied  to  the  wound. 

When  the  docking  pincers  are  used  for  either  docking  or 
castrating,  a  thin  board  or  a  piece  of  heavy  strawboard  with 
a  hole  cut  in  it  to  allow  the  tail  or  scrotum  being  pulled 
through  should  be  used  to  protect  the  other  parts  of  the 
body  from  being  affected  by  the  heat  from  the  hot  pincers. 
If  a  mature  ram  is  to  be  castrated,  two  pieces  of  thin  board 
with  a  notch  cut  in  one  edge  of  each  piece  in  such  a  position 
that,  when  the  edges  of  the  two  pieces  are  placed  together, 
the  notches  will  surround  the  base  of  the  scrotum  should  be 
used  to  protect  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  body  from  the  heat 
from  the  pincers. 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  17 

16.  Use  of  Dogs  as  Herders. — Some  difference  of  opinion 
exists  as  to  the  value  of  dogs  as  herders  of  sheep.  It  is  a 
significant  fact,  however,  that  whenever  sheep  are  herded  in 
large  flocks,  sheep  dogs  are  considered  practically  indispen- 
sible,  and  also  that  a  man  who  has  ever  owned  a  really  intelli- 
gent, well-trained  sheep  dog  speaks  in  high  praise  of  it.  By 
a  sheep  dog  is  meant  a  collie  or  an  Old  English  sheep  dog, 
either  of  which,  if  well  trained,  is  worth  more  than  a  man  for 
sheep-herding  purposes.  A  good  sheep  dog  can  herd  and 
drive  a  flock  of  sheep  more  easily  and  with  less  confusion  to 
the  flock  than  a  man  can.  The  kind  of  dog  that,  by  all  means, 
should  be  kept  away  from  the  flock  is  the  common,  worthless 
cur.  Likewise,  a  badly  trained  sheep  dog  should  not  be  used 
as  a  shepherd.  The  well-trained  sheep  dog  is  a  valuable 
acquisition  to  any  man  who  handles  sheep  in  the  open 
country,  and  such  dogs  are  sufficiently  scarce  to  command 
high  prices.  The  inexperienced  sheep  raiser  should  not  assume 
that,  because  he  invests  ten  dollars  or  more  in  a  collie  puppy, 
he  has  necessarily  secured  a  valuable  sheep  dog.  A  dog  may 
have  had  the  proper  breeding  to  make  an  acceptable  sheep 
dog,  but  without  proper  training  and  management  it  will 
prove  of  little  use.  If  a  dog  is  kept,  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  it  free  from  tapeworms,  as  dogs  assist  in  propagating  and 
scattering  an  infection  of  certain  tapeworms  among  sheep. 

17.  Protection  of  Sheep  Against  Dogs. — Sheep  raising  in 
some  sections  of  the  United  States  is  claimed  to  be  practi- 
cally impossible  because  of  the  losses  sustained  on  account 
of  the  attacks  of  sheep-killing  dogs,  and  in  no  part  of  the 
country  is  a  flock  entirely  free  from  the  possibility  of  such 
attacks.  The  flock  should,  therefore,  be  safeguarded  as  far 
as  possible. 

Sheep  are  seldom  annoyed  by  dogs  during  the  day,  espe- 
cially where  the  flock  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  buildings  on  the 
farm  or  where  people  frequently  pass  near  the  flock.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  flocks  are  attacked  during  the  day,  par- 
ticularly when  they  are  pastured  in  out-of-the-way  pastures 
not  often  seen  or  visited. 

243—20 


18  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  s<  3 1 

Experience  has  proved  that  it  is  not  safe  to  rely  too  much 
for  protection  on  so-called  dog-proof  fences  about  large 
pastures.  However,  dogs  do  not  usually  attack  sheep  that 
are  closely  herded,  and  when  danger  from  dogs  is  anticipated 
it  is  advisable  to  herd  the  sheep  rather  closely  at  night  in 
a  small  lot  surrounded  by  a  dog-proof  fence.  When  such 
a  plan  is  impracticable,  the  liberal  use  of  sheep  bells  is 
advised.  A  flock  of  from  50  to  100  sheep  should  have  a  good 
bell  on  from  six  to  ten  of  the  liveliest  and  most  vigorous  sheep 
in  the  flock. 

18.  Dipping  the  Sheep. — If  s*heep  have  been  shipped  from 
other  states ;  have  been  purchased  in  the  large  markets ;  have 
occupied  cars,  sheds,  or  pens  that  other  sheep  had  previously 
occupied;  or  have  in  any  way  been  exposed  to  a  possible 
infection  of  external  parasites,  they  should  be  kept  in  strict 
quarantine  for  a  couple  of  days  after  reaching  the  farm  and 
then  be  thoroughly  dipped  and  moved  to  new  quarters.  If 
the  dipping  is  thorough,  all  the  external  parasites,  such  as 
scab  mites,  ticks,  and  lice,  will  be  killed  and  the  sheep  will 
be  in  a  condition  to  thrive.  This  will  not  be  the  case  if  they 
are  worried  and  their  vitality  is  weakened  by  the  attacks  of 
parasites.  However,  the  dipping  will  not  kill  the  eggs  of  the 
parasites,  and  the  eggs  of  some  of  them  hatch  in  about 
4  days,  and  in  7  more  days  the  young  parasites  may  begin 
to  lay  eggs.  It  is  imperative,  therefore,  to  dip  a  flock  of 
sheep  a  second  time,  in  from  5  to  10  days  after  the  first 
dipping,  to  insure  the  eradication  of  all  parasites. 

The  farm  flock,  whether  maintained  for  breeding  purposes 
or  for  the  production  of  wool  and  mutton,  should  be  dipped 
each  year  after  shearing,  as  dipping  is  much  more  effective 
when  the  fleece  is  short  than  when  it  is  long.  Lambs  should 
also  be  dipped  at  the  same  time,  as  the  ticks  and  lice  naturally 
seek  them  for  shelter  when  the  older  sheep  are  shorn.  If 
the  sheep  are  dipped  when  the  wool  is  short,  the  ingredients 
of  dips  that  are  likely  to  affect  the  fleece  injuriously,  such  as 
lime  in  the  lime-and-sulphur  dips,  will  not  cause  much  if  any 
injury.     The  use  of  a  lime-and-sulphur  dip  is  not  advised  if 


§34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  ■  1!) 

the  sheep  have  fleeces  of  considerable  growth.  Wool  dealers 
object  to  it  because  of  its  deleterious  effect  on  the  wool,  and 
some  sheepmen  claim  that  its  use  may  stop  the  growth  of 
wool  for  a  time. 

The  lime-and-sulphur  dip  is  especially  recommended,  if 
properly  made  and  applied,  as  an  inexpensive  and  one  of 
the  most  efficient  'dips  for  the  eradication  of  sheep  scab. 
The  dip  is  made  as  follows:  Carefully  weigh  10  pounds  of 
clean,  unslaked  lime  and  place  it  in  a  mortar  box  or  other 
convenient  receptacle;  add  enough  water  to  slake  the  lime 
and  mix  to  a  creamy  paste;  sift  into  this  paste  an  accurate 
weight  of  30  pounds  of  flowers  of  sulphur  and  mix  thoroughly ; 
place  the  mixture  in  a  boiler,  add  25  gallons  of  water,  and 
boil  for  at  least  2  hours,  keeping  the  mixture  well  stirred; 
then  allow  the  sediment  to  settle,  carefully  drain  or  dip  off 
the  clear  liquid  and  add  to  it  enough  water  to  make  100  gallons. 
A  good  way  to  drain  off  the  clear  liquid  is  to  place  the  boiled 
mixture  in  an  ordinary  oil  barrel  with  a  spigot  4  inches  from 
the  bottom;  when  the  sediment  has  collected  at  the  bottom 
of  the  barrel,  gently  turn  the  spigot,  which  allows  the  clear 
liquid  to  run  out  of  the  barrel.  If  a  larger  quantity  of  the 
dip  is  desired,  the  proportion  of  the  lime,  sulphur,  and  water 
given  above  should  be  used. 

This  dip  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  from  100°  to 
110°  F.  while  the  sheep  are  being  dipped.  Each  sheep  should 
remain  in  the  dip  2  minutes,  and  its  head  should  be  immersed 
in  the  dip  at  least  once.  The  time  that  each  sheep  is  in  the 
dip  should  not  be  guessed  at  but  measured  by  a  watch ;  and 
a  thermometer  should  be  used  in  regulating  the  temperature 
of  the  dip. 

If  the  'sheepman  will  not  take  the  necessary  care  to  make 
and  use  the  lime-and-sulphur  dip  as  directed,  he  will  probably 
meet  with  greater  success  in  killing  the  parasites  on  his  sheep 
and  in  lessening  their  suffering  by  using  one  of  the  many 
proprietary  dips  that  may  be  found  on  the  market.  The 
proprietary  dips  are  usually  preparations  containing  coal  tar, 
sulphur,  arsenic,  or  nicotine,  and  are  variously  known  as 
coal-tar,    sulphur,    arsenic,    or   tobacco   dips.     In  using  any 


20  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

of  these  dips  the  sheepman  should  rigidly  follow  the  directions 
that  always  accompany  each  package  of  the  dip. 

19.  Washing  of  Sheep. — The  washing  of  sheep  consists 
in  immersing  them  in  water,  either  in  a  tank  or  in  a  stream  or 
pond,  through  which  they  are  compelled  to  swim  from  10  to 
30  feet.  While  the  sheep  are  in  the  water  their  wool  is 
sometimes  squeezed  to  a  slight  extent  in  the  hands  of  attend- 
ants. Often  the  sheep  are  simply  pushed  under  the  water 
and  made  to  swim  a  short  distance.  After  this  washing  the 
water  is  allowed  to  drain  from  the  fleeces,  and  after  from 
7  to  14  days  have  elapsed  the  sheep  should  be  shorn.  The 
practice  of  washing  sheep  is,  in  general,  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, because  the  washing  removes  some  of  the  yolk, 
or  oil,  in  the  fleeces  of  the  sheep,  and  thereby  reduces  their 
weight.  It  does  not,  in  any  way,  prepare  the  wool  for  the 
manufacturer  of  woolen  goods,  and  sheep  are  sometimes 
handled  roughly  during  the  washing.  Washing  may  be 
excusable  in  some  localities  where  wool  buyers  persist  in 
offering  less  for  unwashed  wool  than  they  do  for  the  so-called 
washed  wool. 

HOTHOUSE    LAMBS 

20.  Hothouse  lambs,  also  called  winter  lambs  and  early 
lambs,  are  those  dropped  at  a  time  of  the  year  that  will  permit 
of  placing  them,  when  8  to  12  weeks  of  age,  on  the  market 
during  the  season  extending  from  Christmas  to  the  first  of 
May.  Such  lambs  should  weigh  from  25  to  60  pounds. 
During  the  time  mentioned,  lamb  is  considerably  out  of 
season  and  consequently  commands  high  prices.  To  raise 
lambs  for  market  at  this  time  of  the  year  requires  special 
management  of  the  breeding  flock  and,  as  a  rule,  special 
equipment. 

For  raising  early  lambs  successfully  and  profitably,  the 
farm  should  be  located  within  a  few  miles  of  a  railway  station 
on  some  line  having  well-equipped,  fast  express  and  freight 
trains  to  a  city  or  cities  in  which  there  is  a  good  market  for 
all  the  first-class  early,  or  hothouse,  lambs  that  are  likely  to 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


21 


be  shipped  into  them.  It  is  not  often  wise  to  ship  more 
than  200  miles  nor  to  undertake  the  development  of  a  market 
for  early  lambs  in  cities  where  such  a  market  has  not  pre- 
viously existed.  The  cities  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  are  much  better  markets  for  early  lambs  than  are  the 
cities  in  the  middle  and  western  parts  of  the  country. 

In  addition  to  a  well-ventilated  and  a  well-lighted  barn, 
provision  should  be  made  for  a  lamb  creep,  which  should 
be  built  in  the  lightest  part  of  the  barn.  If  the  creep  can  be 
placed  so  that  the  sun  shines  directly  into  it  much  of  the  day, 
so  much  the  better.  In  fact,  some  of  the  most  successful 
early-lamb  raisers  have  glass-roofed  sheds  on  the  south  side 
of  the  sheep  barn  for  their  lamb  creep.  The  name  of  hothouse 
lambs  was  given  to  lambs  raised  in  these  glass-roofed  sheds. 

21.  Large-bodied,  hardy  ewes  that  give  a  large  quantity 
of  milk  and  that  may  be  made  to  take  the  ram  during  the 
summer  months  must  be  used  to  produce  early  lambs.  The 
Dorset  ewe  is  preeminently  the  ewe  for  this  purpose,  although 
cross-bred  Merino-Shropshire  ewes  have  proven  to  be  very 
satisfactory.  It  is  not  normal  for  ewes  to  breed  during  the 
summer  months,  and  to  induce  the  ewes  to  breed  at  this  time 
of  the  year  sheepmen  practice  a  treatment  of  the  ewes  known 
as  flushing.  This  consists  in  restricting  the  ewes  to  a  ration 
of  hay  and  straw  or  of  short  dry  pasture  for  a  couple  of  weeks, 
then  turning  them  on  fresh  pasture  and  feeding  them  a  little 
grain  at  the  time  it  is  desired  to  have  them  bred.  This  prac- 
tice usually  brings  the  ewes  in  heat.  The  same  details  in 
regard  to  breeding  and  to  the  keeping  of  records  should  be 
practiced  in  breeding  for  early  lambs  as  for  the  regular  crop 
of  lambs.  In  case  there  are  ewes  that  do  not  get  with  lamb 
during  the  special  breeding  period,  they  should  be  bred  at  the 
regular  time  for  breeding  in  the  fall. 

22.  Care  of  Ewes  for  Early  Lambs.— Ewes  bred  to  drop 
lambs  for  the  early-lamb  market  should  have  especially  good 
care  and  be  kept  in  a  good,  thrifty  condition.  Provision 
should  be  made  to  supplement  the  regular  pasture,  in  case 
it  becomes  short  on  account  of  drought  or  other  cause,  by 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

some  soiling  crop  such  as  oats  and  peas,  rape,  or  thickly  sown 
sweet  corn. 

As  the  ewes  will  be  heavy  in  lamb  by  early  fall,  they  should 
be  brought  from  the  fields  to  the  barns  to  be  sheltered  from 
storms  that  may  occur  at  this  time  of  the  year.  If  it  is 
practicable,  they  should  be  divided  into  small  flocks  each  of 
about  15  ewes  due  to  lamb  on  nearly  the  same  date,  and  each 
flock  placed  in  a  separate  pen.  This  arrangement  will  facilitate 
the  work  of  the  shepherd  during  the  lambing  period.  As 
soon  as  the  ewes  are  placed  in  their  winter  quarters  they 
should  be  fed  a  ration  containing  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  silage, 
or  roots,  and  about  h  pound  of  grain.  After  the  lambs  are 
dropped,  the  grain  ration  for  the  ewes  should  be  increased 
until  they  receive  daily  2  pounds  each,  or  all  they  will  eat. 
With  the  exception  of  straw,  feeds  should  never  be  placed 
before  the  sheep  in  such  quantities  that  any  will  be  left  after 
their  appetites  are  satisfied.  Regular  times  should  be  selected 
for  feeding,  and  the  time  selected  should  be  rigidly  adhered 
to.  In  the  morning  after  daylight,  noon,  and  before  dark 
at  night  are  good  times  to  feed  sheep.  Sheep  should  not  be 
disturbed  after  dark. 

23.  Care  of  Hothouse  Lambs. — Lambs  form  the  habit  of 
nibbling  at  solid  food  at  a  surprisingly  young  age,  apparently 
in  imitation  of  their  dams,  and  at  about  10  days  of  age  they 
will  eat  small  particles  of  grain  feed ;  as  the  raising  of  hothouse 
lambs  is  more  or  less  of  a  stuffing  process,  the  chief  object  of 
which  is  to  produce  fat  and  not  bone  and  muscle  on  the  young 
lambs,  the  habit  of  early  eating  should  be  encouraged  in 
tvery  way  possible.  The  lamb  creep  should  be  ready  for 
them  as  soon  as  they  have  learned  to  eat.  Troughs  about 
12  inches  wide,  3  inches  deep,  and  as  long  as  may  be  con- 
venient, should  be  placed  in  the  creep.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
end  pieces  of  the  trough  extend  about  12  inches  above  the 
sides  and  sharpened  to  a  right  angle,  and  to  have  a  cover 
made  of  two  light  6-inch  boards  as  long  as  the  trough  and 
with  short  boards  nailed  over  the  ends  so  that  the  cover  will 
fit  down  over  the  top  of  the  upright  end  pieces.     This  makes 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  23 

a  cover  the  shape  of  an  inverted  Y  for  the  trough  and  pre- 
vents the  lambs  from  getting  into  it  with  their  feet,  which 
they  seem  to  take  a  delight  in  doing.  The  cover  should  be 
set  on  the  trough  and  not  nailed  to  it,  because  the  trough 
can  be  easily  cleaned  if  the  top  can  be  lifted  off.  Lambs  seem 
to  eat  more  feed  when  a  variety  of  grains  and  concentrates 
is  furnished  than  when  such  a  variety  is  not  furnished.  The 
best  way  to  supply  a  variety  of  concentrates  is  to  keep  each 
kind  of  feed  in  a  separate  part  of  the  trough.  To  do  this,  the 
trough  can  be  divided  into  separate  compartments  by  placing 
upright  partitions,  similar  in  shape  to  the  end  pieces,  at 
intervals  in  the  trough.  The  choicest  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
and  silage  should  also  be  fed  to  the  lambs  in  the  creep,  where 
the  ewes  can  not  get  them. 

24.  Preparing  Hothouse  Lambs  for  Market. — As  soon  as 
the  very  earliest  lambs  attain  a  weight  of  from  25  to  35  pounds, 
they  may  be  slaughtered  and  marketed  to  advantage,  but 
lambs  weighing  about  40  pounds  usually  command  the  most 
attention  from  buyers.  Generally,  a  local  butcher  can  be 
secured  to  kill  and  dress  the  lambs  for  market.  They  are 
commonly  "hog-dressed,"  that  is,  they  are  hung  up  by  the 
hind  legs,  thoroughly  bled  from  the  neck,  and  opened  along 
the  median  line  of  the  belly;  the  esophagus,  stomach,  and 
intestines  are  removed,  but  the  kidneys  are  left  in  place. 
During  rather  mild  weather  the  lungs,  heart,  and  liver  should 
also  be  removed;  during  very  cold  weather  these  organs 
should  be  left  in  place.  The  head  is  often  and  the  pelt  and 
legs  are  usually  left  on  the  body.  To  give  the  carcass  a  full, 
round,  thick  appearance,  the  back  is  broken  by  pushing  with 
one  hand  just  back  of  the  kidneys  and  pulling  backwards  on 
the  breast  with  the  other  hand,  and  then  the  sides  are  spread 
and  held  apart  in  the  following  manner:  One  end  of  a 
backset — that  is,  a  piece  of  wood  12  to  18  inches  long,  about 
|  inch  thick,  and  from  1  to  2  inches  wide — is  placed  into 
the  outside  of  the  belly  near  one  edge,  then  the  sides  are 
spread  outwards  and  backwards  until  the  other  end  of  the 
backset  can  be  placed  across  the  back  and  into  the  other  side 


24  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §34 

of  the  belly;  the  caul  is  then  spread  neatly  over  the  kidneys 
and  hooked  on  the  ends  of  the  backset.  The  body  is  allowed 
to  hang  until  it  is  thoroughly  cooled,  when  it  is  sewed  up  in 
a  piece  of  clean  muslin  or  cheese  cloth  and  carefully  packed 
in  a  shipping  crate.  Such  lambs,  if  choice  and  marketed  at 
the  proper  time  and  place,  command  prices  ranging  from 
$7  to  $15  each.  

MARKETING   OF   SHEEP   AND   LAMBS 

25.  The  size  of  the  flock  and  the  number  of  surplus  sheep 
or  lambs  for  sale  at  any  one  time  will  determine,  to  a  large 
degree,  the  best  way  of  selling  them.  If  a  sufficiently  large 
flock  is  kept  to  produce  a  carload — that  is,  from  100  to 
125  sheep  for  single-deck  cars  and  from  200  to  250  sheep 
for  double-deck  cars — or  more  of  surplus  stock  for  sale  at 
any  one  time,  it  is  generally  desirable  to  ship  the  sheep  direct 
to  a  reliable  commission  firm  at  the  most  accessible  large 
livestock  market. 

The  principal  sheep  markets  in  the  United  States  are  in 
Chicago,  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Buffalo,  Pittsburg, 
St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  and  Fort 
Worth,  Texas. 

If,  as  is  usual  on  a  majority  of  farms,  only  a  few  sheep  or 
lambs  are  to  be  disposed  of,  a  market  should  be  sought 
among  local  butchers  or  shippers.  Before  selling  his  sheep, 
the  owner  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  market  value 
of  the  grade  of  sheep  or  lambs  he  has  to  sell,  and,  after  esti- 
mating and  deducting  the  probable  freight  charges  for  ship- 
ping to  the  chosen  market  arrive  at  the  approximate  value 
of  his  product  on  the  farm.  This  procedure  will  help  him  in 
placing  a  fair  and  reasonable  valuation  on  his  sheep  so  that 
he  may  avoid  losing  by  not  asking  enough  or  by  the  loss  of 
a  sale  because  of  insisting  on  getting  more  than  the  product 
is  worth.  In  almost  every  case,  surplus  stock  should  not  be 
sold  before  it  is  fattened.  Breeding  ewes  that  have  been 
discarded  because  of  advanced  age  or  of  failure  to  breed  can 
often  be  sold  to  good  advantage  in  the  summer  or  early  fall 
after  they  have  become  fattened  on  pasture. 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  25 

There  is  no  best  time  to  sell  sheep  or  lambs  unless  it  is 
just  as  soon  as  they  are  fat,  and  they  should  be  fattened  as 
rapidly  as  is  consistent  with  judicious  feeding  methods. 

If  a  sheep  raiser  does  not  have  and  cannot  secure  the 
necessary  feed  to  fatten  his  surplus  sheep,  it  is  usually  best 
to  sell  them  to  some  one  who  is  able  to  do  so. 

26.  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep. — Almost  the 
entire  number  of  sheep  and  lambs  received  at  the  large 
livestock  markets  are  classed  as  mutton  sheep,  feeder  sheep, 
or  breeding  sheep. 

All  sheep  and  lambs  that  are  shipped  to  a  large  market 
and  sold  for  slaughter,  no  matter  what  their  condition,  age, 
or  weight  may  be,  are  classed  as  mutton  sheep,  a  term  that 
must  not  be  confused  with  the  term  mutton  type  of  sheep. 
The  largest  part  of  the  sheep  received  in  the  market  consists 
of  this  class,  which  is  divided  into  the  following  subclasses: 
Lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  ewes,  bucks,  and  stags.  Lambs 
are  animals  that  are  mostly  under  12  to  14  months  of  age, 
at  about  which  age  they  pass  into  the  yearling,  the  ewe,  or 
the  buck  subclasses.  Yearlings  are  the  castrated  lambs 
from  about  12  to  14  months  of  age  until  they  are  about 
2  years  old,  or  mature,  after  which  they  are  known  as  wethers. 
An  index  that  sheep  dealers  use  in  determining  whether  a 
sheep  is  a  yearling  or  a  wether  is  the  condition  of  the  joint 
immediately  above  the  pastern  joint,  and  is  known  as  the 
break  joint.  This  joint  is  present  only  in  lambs  and  in  cas- 
trated males  until  they  are  about  2  years  old;  it  disappears 
in  ewes  when  they  are  about  14  months  old.  A  bony-like 
prominence  just  above  the  pastern  joint  is  a  true  indication 
of  the  presence  of  the  break  joint.  When  the  sheep  matures 
this  prominence  disappears  and  the  sheep  cannot  be  classed 
as  a  yearling.  All  female  sheep  received  in  the  markets  and 
that  are  older  than  lambs  are  known  as  ewes.  Rams  after 
they  have  passed  out  of  the  lamb  subclass  are  designated 
in  the  market  as  bucks.  Male  lambs  that  are  castrated  after 
they  are  12  to  14  months  old  are  classed  in  the  market  as 
stags.     Each  of  the  subclasses  described  and  the  subclasses 


26  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

of  the  other  market  classes  of  sheep  are  further  divided  into 
market  grades  of  sheep.  The  grades  usually  given  in  market 
reports  are  prime  or  fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium,  and 
common,  or  culls.  The  grades  rank  in  the  order  named  in 
regard  to  the  quality  and  the  condition  of  the  sheep  constitu- 
ting each  grade. 

The  class  known  as  feeder  sheep  consists  of  sheep  that  are 
received  in  the  markets  in  poor  condition  and  that  are  sold 
to  be  fattened.  The  recognized  subclasses  of  feeder  sheep 
are  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  and  ewes. 

The  class  known  as  breeding  sheep  consists  of  those  sheep 
that  are  bought  in  the  large  markets  for  breeding  purposes. 
By  far  the  larger  number  of  the  breeding  class  of  sheep  pur- 
chased are  ewes.  The  rams,  or  bucks,  as  they  are  known  in 
the  markets,  are  few  in  number  and  most  of  them  show  a 
form  and  a  mixture  of  blood  that  make  them  undesirable  for 
breeding  purposes. 

A  miscellaneous  class  of  sheep  should  probably  be  men- 
tioned, since  there  are  certain  sheep  on  the  markets  that 
cannot  be  placed  in  any  of  the  classes  previously  described. 
The  miscellaneous  class  consists  of  hot-house  lambs,  export 
sheep,  throw-outs  or  rejects,  and  dead  sheep.  Hothouse  lambs 
have  been  described  elsewhere.  Export  sheep  are  usually 
sheep  in  excellent  condition  and  are  of  the  prime  and 
choice  grades  of  any  of  the  subclasses  of  the  mutton  class  of 
sheep.  Throw-outs  are  the  sheep  first  placed  in  the  feeder 
class  on  account  of  their  poor  condition  and  then  rejected,  or 
thrown  out,  by  purchasers  of  feeder  sheep,  a  privilege  allowed 
by  the  market  authorities.  Such  sheep  are  usually  purchased 
by  local  butchers  who  cater  to  a  cheap  trade.  Dead  sheep 
are  those  that  are  killed  in  transit.  They  are  sold  for  their 
wool  and  for  fertilizing  purposes. 

The  market  classifications  of  sheep  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  diagram. 


s  ;;i 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


27 


Classes 


Mutton  sheep 


Feeder  sheep 


Subclasses 


Lambs 


Yearlings 


Wethers 


Ewes 


Bucks  and  Stags 


Lambs 


Yearlings 


Wethers 


Ewes 


Grades 

Prime 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common,  or  culls 

(Prime 
Choice 
Good 

(Prime 
Choice 
Good 
Common 

Prime 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common,  or  culls 


(Choice 
Good 
Common 

("Fancy  selected 

II  Choice 
(  ',(  H  K  1 
Medium 
Common 

(Choice 
Good 
Common 

(Choice 
Good 
Medium 
Common 

Choice 
Good 
Medium 
Common 


Breeding  sheep 

Miscellaneous: 
Hothouse  lambs 
Expoft  sheep 
Throw-outs 
Dead  sheep 


Ewes 


Bucks 


Fancy  selected 
Choice 
Good 
Common 
(Not  graded) 


28  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §34 

27.  Uniformity  of  Shipments. — If  it  is  possible  to  do  so, 
it  is  an  advantage  to  make  shipments  of  several  hundred 
animals,  because  then  there  is  an  opportunity  to  grade  the 
animals  so  that  all  sheep  in  each  car  are  nearly  alike  in  con- 
formation and  condition.  Bunches  of  uniform  sheep,  espe- 
cially of  lambs,  in  the  large  markets  usually  meet  with  a  quick 
purchase  and  command  top  prices  for  the  grade  of  sheep  to 
which  they  belong.  Buyers  in  the  same  markets  are  slow  to 
purchase  flocks  of  mixed  grades,  although  there  may  be  many 
animals  of  desirable  grades  among  them.  It  is  useless  for 
the  shipper  to  expect  that  a  few  animals  of  the  poor  grades, 
mixed  among  sheep  of  better  grades,  will  go  unnoticed  in 
the  markets.  A  shipment  of  sheep  upon  their  arrival  at  the 
large  market  is  usually  handled  by  an  expert,  who  quickly 
finds  the  low-grade  animals  if  they  are  present. 

28.  Shipping  of  Sheep. — In  order  that  a  shipment  of 
-sheep  may  appear  to  the  best  advantage  at  the  time  of  sale, 
the  floor  of  the  car  in  which  they  are  shipped  should  be  well 
covered  with  dry  straw  or  other  material  for  keeping  the 
animals  clean.  It  is  not  necessary  to  give  each  sheep  in  the 
car  more  space  than  enough  to  allow  it  to  stand  comfortably, 
but  overcrowding  should  be  avoided.  In  hot  weather  over- 
crowding results  in  losses,  especially  if  lambs  are  mixed  with 
larger  sheep.  In  such  cases  the  lambs  are  likely  to  be  suf- 
focated by  being  crowded  in  between  the  larger  sheep. 

At  the  time  of  shipment,  the  fleeces  of  sheep  or  lambs 
should  be  dry.  If  they  are  wet  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them 
clean  in  appearance  even  though  they  are  well  bedded;  and 
when  they  reach  the  market  buyers  do  not  like  to  bid  on  them, 
or  if  they  do  they  offer  less  for  them  than  if  they  were  dry. 
If,  at  the  time  of  shipment,  some  of  the  sheep  or  lambs  are 
foul  behind  from  dung  lodged  in  the  wool,  it  is  well  to  clip 
this  soiled  wool  off  before  they  are  placed  in  the  car,  because 
the  close  crowding  in  the  car  causes  the  sheep  that  are  foul 
to  soil  the  sides  of  those  that  are  clean;  this  soiled  wool 
detracts  from  the  appearance  of  the  animals  and  often  results 
in  a  low  price  being  paid  for  them. 


§  3 1  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  29 


PRODUCTION    OF   WOOL 

29.  Wool  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  products  of  sheep 
husbandry.  The  entire  quantity  of  wool  produced  during 
any  one  season  is  known  as  the  wool  clip.  The  quantity  of 
wool  produced  by  one  animal  is  known  as  a  fleece,  whether 
the  wool  is  on  the  animal  or  has  been  removed  by  shearing. 
Wool  is  classed,  in  a  general  way,  as  clothing,  combing,  and 
carpet  wools.  Clothing  wools  are  the  wools  produced  mostly 
by  sheep  that  have  a  preponderance  of  blood  of  the  fine-wool 
breeds  and  that  have  wool  the  fiber  of  which  is  less  than 
2\  inches  in  length.  When  the  fiber  is  more  than  2h  inches 
in  length,  the  wool  is  classed  as  combing  wool.  The  Delaine 
Merino  and  the  Rambouillet  breeds  grow  the  finest  quality 
of  combing  wools.  Carpet  wools  are  those  wools  that  have 
a  strong,  coarse,  wiry,  fiber,  and  are  more  like  hair  than  wool. 
Such  wools  are  not  suitable  for  cloth  but  are  well  adapted 
for  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 

In  the  production  of  wool,  the  characters  that  should  be 
sought  are  evenness  of  quality  in  the  fleece,  density,  and  an 
evenness  of  length  of  fiber  over  the  entire  body.  To  produce 
such  wool,  the  health  of  the  flock  must  be  maintained  at  all 
times,  as  an  unthrifty  condition  of  the  sheep,  from  whatever 
cause,  is  certain  to  be  shown  in  their  fleeces.  The  fiber  will 
always  be  found  weak  and  attenuated  at  that  portion  of  its 
growth  made  when  the  animal  was  suffering  from  some  dis- 
ease, from  injurious  feeding,  or  from  anything  that  reduced 
its  natural  vigor.  Although  the  fiber  may  make  a  strong 
and  healthy  growth  afterwards,  that  weak  place  in  the  fiber 
cannot  be  remedied.  The  attenuated  condition  of  a  fleece 
is  especially  bad  in  the  case  of  combing  wools,  as  the  fiber, 
when  placed  on  the  combs,  breaks  at  the  weak  spot  and  pro- 
duces a  quantity  of  short,  broken  fibers  known  to  the  wool 
trade  as  noils,  or  waste  wool. 

The  wool  of  sheep  is  greatly  influenced  by  environment, 
feeding,  and  shelter.  A  dense,  even  fleece  is  more  readily 
grown  in  a  climate  where  the  winter  season  is  very  cold. 
Zero  weather  stimulates  the  growth  of  wool  on  sheep  just  as 


30  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

it  stimulates  the  production  of  the  finest  fur  on  the  fur-bearing 
animals  that  inhabit  the  frozen  regions  of  the  north.  The 
production  of  wool  and  fur  is  Nature's  provision  for  fitting 
animals  to  their  environment.  To  grow  sound,  even  fleqces, 
sheep  must  be  fed  regularly,  have  good  clean  water,  be  pro- 
tected from  the  attacks  of  external  and  internal  parasites, 
and  be  sheltered  from  rains,  severe  winds,  and  snows,  in  barns 
that  are  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  and  not  too  warm. 

30.  Shearing  of  Sheep. — The  removal  of  the  fleece  from 
a  sheep  by  means  of  implements  known  as  sheep  shears  is 
spoken  of  as  the  shearing  of  sheep,  or  simply  as  sheep  shear- 
ing, and  the  person  doing  the  shearing  is  called  a  shearer. 
The  skill  of  a  sheep  shearer  is  gauged  by  his  ability  to  remove 
a  large  quantity  of  wool  in  a  given  time  without  injury  to  the 
fleeces  or  to  the  sheep.  The  quantity  of  wool  removed 
depends  on  how  close  to  the  body  the  shearing  is  done  as  well 
as  on  the  number  of  sheep  shorn.  The  best  and  heaviest 
wool  is  next  to  the  body;  hence,  the  necessity  of  shearing 
closely.  The  number  of  sheep  that  one  man  can  shear  in  a 
day  depends  on  the  breed  of  sheep  and  on  the  skill  of  the 
shearer.  It  takes  a  much  longer  time  to  shear  a  densely 
covered,  oily,  wrinkled  American  Merino  than  it  does  to  shear 
a  smooth,  imperfectly  covered  Southdown;  an  unskilled  man 
in  the  art  of  shearing  may  be  able  to  shear  25  sheep  in  a  day 
with  hand  shears;  skilled  men  have  been  reported  to  have 
shorn  as  many  as  200  sheep  in  a  day  with  hand  shears. 

To  remove  a  fleece  in  good  condition  involves  keeping  it 
intact  and  free  from  second  cuts.  Second  cuts  are  made  by 
cutting  the  fibers  of  wool  after  they  have  been  shorn  from 
the  sheep.  In  order  to  prevent  making  second  cuts,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  shearer  to  keep  the  blades  of  the  shears 
close  to  the  skin  of  the  sheep  and  to  have  the  wool  fall  away 
from  the  sheep  as  it  is  shorn.  The  shearer  cannot  do  this  well 
until  he  becomes  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  general  shape 
of  a  sheep  in  whatever  position  it  may  be  held  while  it  is 
being  shorn.  He  must  also  learn  how  to  hold  a  sheep  so  that 
it  will  not  struggle,  thereby  preventing  it  from  kicking  and 


£34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  31 

tearing  the  fleece  apart.  Finally,  the  work  of  a  shearer 
cannot  be  pronounced  a  good  job  if  he  inflicts  many  wounds 
by  cutting  the  skin  of  the  sheep.  To  prevent  making  wounds, 
the  shearer  should  keep  the  skin  of  the  sheep  just  in  front  of 
the  shears  as  smooth  and  free  from  folds  and  wrinkles  as 
possible. 

31.  Time  of  the  Year  to  Shear  Sheep. — Formerly  it  was 
considered  good  practice  not  to  shear  sheep  until  about  the 
first  of  June,  because  shearing  at  that  time  permitted  of 
washing  the  sheep,  and  many  sheep  raisers  thought  that  the 
warm  weather  made  the  fleeces  more  oily  and  thereby  heavier 
than  they  would  be  earlier.  The  most  desirable  time  for  any 
particular  farmer  to  shear  his  flock  of  sheep  will  necessarily 
depend  largely  on  the  climatic  conditions  and  on  the  shelter 
that  can  be  given  to  the  flock'  a  few  weeks  after  the  sheep  are 
shorn.  If  the  weather  is  inclined  to  be  warm  and  mild  or 
if  shelter  can  be  easily  provided  for  the  sheep,  early  shearing — 
that  is,  about  the  first  of  April — is  advisable;  but  if  cold  and 
stormy  weather  is  expected,  shearing  had  best  be  deferred 
until  May  or  possibly  until  early  in  June.  The  majority  of 
successful  flock  owners  living  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  near  the  40th  parallel  of  north  latitude — which  parallel 
passes  through  or  near  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Columbus,  Ohio, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  Springfield,  111.,  and  St.  Joseph,  Mo. — 
advocate  and  practice  the  shearing  of  their  flocks  about  the 
first  week  in  April.  They  claim  that  the  discomfort  of  the 
sheep  is  less  than  when  the  sheep  are  shorn  later;  that  while 
in  short  fleeces  the  sheep  will  go  under  shelter  as  soon  as  the 
first  drops  of  rain  hit  them,  but  that  if  they  are  in  full  fleece 
they  will  remain  out  in  the  rain  until  their  fleeces  are  soaked. 
Some  sheepmen  claim  that  if  the  fleeces  are  removed  during 
the  cool  weather  of  spring  and  the  flock  is  given  shelter  at 
night,  the  appetites  of  the  sheep  improve;  the  wool  makes 
quick,  rapid  growth  and  thus  protects  the  backs  of  the  sheep 
from  the  sun  during  the  hot  days  that  follow;  and  that  a 
larger  quantity  of  wool  is  produced  during  a  year  than  when 
sheep  are  shorn  late.     Persons  living  north  or  south  of  the 


32  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

-10th  parallel  should  make  due  allowance  for  the  distance 
that  they  live  from  it  in  deciding  on  what  would  be  early 
or  late  shearing  for  that  particular  locality. 

32.  Shearing  Floor. — For  the  shearing  of  sheep,  a  well- 
lighted,  clean,  floored  space  about  7  or  8  feet  square  or  of 
other  suitable  dimensions  that  will  allow  the  shearer  ample 
room  in  which  to  work  is  needed.  The  floor  should  be  of 
wood,  because  there  is  less  likelihood  of  damaging  any  shear- 
ing apparatus  that  may  be  accidentally  dropped.  A  pen  in 
which  the  sheep  are  kept  should  join  the  shearing  floor  so 
that  the  shearers  will  loose  as  little  time  as  possible  in  getting 
the  sheep  to  and  from  the  pen.  Arrangements  should  be 
made  to  remove  the  fleeces  from  the  shearing  floor  as  soon 
as  they  are  removed  from  the  sheep,  and,  if  the  wool  is  to 
be  stored  in  the  large  burlap  bags  in  which  it  is  usually 
marketed  they  may  be  arranged  so  that,  as  the  fleeces  are 
tied,  they  can  be  tossed  directly  into  the  bags. 

33.  Comparison  of  Hand  and  Machine  Shears. — Hand 
shears  have  been  largely  superseded  by  power  machines  in 
the  central  and  western  sections  of  the  United  States.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  that  power  machines  cut  closer  and 
leave  a  more  even  surface  than  the  hand  shears.  Because 
they  cut  closer,  more  wool  is  secured  than  when  the  hand 
shears  are  used.  At  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition, 
held  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  in  1904,  an  expert  English  shep- 
herd with  hand  shears  sheared  a  sheep  having  a  thin,  dry 
fleece.  The  sheep  was  then  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful 
operator  who  secured  13  ounces  of  wool  by  going  over  it  with 
a  shearing  machine.  The  skin  of  the  sheep  is  less  likely  to 
be  cut  with  the  shearing  machine  than  with  the  hand  shears. 
No  matter  how  careful  the  operator  of  the  hand  shears  may 
be,  he  will  do  some  cutting  of  the  skin;  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  practically  none  with  the  shearing  machine,  pro- 
vided care  is  exercised  in  its  use.  The  shearing  machine  not 
only  does  neater  work  than  the  hand  shears,  but  it  does  work 
more  rapidly.  This  is  especially  true  if  the  operator  with 
the  hand  shears  is  not  a  skilled  shearer.     It  has  been  said 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


33 


that  professional  operators  using  the  shearing  machine  have 
many  times  done  their  best  and  most  rapid  work  in  the  first 
season  of  their  experience.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  same 
can  be  truthfully  said  of  operators  with  hand  shears. 

Notwithstanding  the  advantages  of  shearing  machines, 
there  are  conditions  under  which  it  would  be  preferable 
to  use  hand  shears.  If  the  owner  of  a  small  flock  of  from 
25  to  50  sheep  chooses  to  do  the  shearing,  it  would  scarcely 
pay  him  to  buy  a  shearing  machine.  If  one  is  bought  it 
should  be  of  the  hand-power  type,  and  this  calls  for  an  extra 
laborer.  Again,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  shear  some 
of  the  more  wrinkled,  oily  Merino  sheep  with  the  power 
machines.  The  oil  and  short,  fine  fibers  of  wool  collect  on 
the  knife  and  comb  to  such  an  extent  that  the  knife  refuses 
to  cut. 

If  hand  shears  are  used,  it  is  essential  that  the  blades  be 
bright  and  sharp.  The  spring  that  forces  the  blades  apart 
should  be  of  medium  strength,  because  if  it  is  too  strong  it 
soon  tires  the  hand;  and  if  too  weak,  the  blades  fail  to  separate 
and  do  not  reach  deep  into  the  wool.  Shears  with  blades 
from  5  to  6|  inches  long  are  preferred  for  most  shearing. 
Shorter  blades  may  be  more  suitable  for  the  shearing  of  sheep 
with  exceedingly  dense,  oily  fleeces.  As  a  rule,  shearers 
wrap  the  handles  of  the  shears  with  twine;  this  gives  a  firmer 
grip  and  one  that  is  less  tiring  than  a  grip  on  the  unwrapped 
steel  handles.  The  proper  position  of  the  hand  in  grasping 
a  pair  of  shears  is  exactly  like  the  position  the  hand  naturally 
takes  in  gripping  a  stick  about  the  size  of  a  man's  wrist. 
When  a  pair  of  shears  is  used,  enough-  pressure  should  be  used 
to  bring  the  edges  of  the  blades  quickly  together  along  their 
entire  length.  If  the  edges  near  the  points  of  the  blades  do 
not  meet,  poor  shearing  is  sure  to  result. 

Shearing  machines  are  made  by  various  manufacturing 
companies  and  in  several  sizes,  although  nearly  if  not  all 
machines  are  built  on  the  same  general  plan.  The  speed 
at  which  the  knife  should  be  run  depends  somewhat  on  the 
nature  of  the  wool  to  be  removed,  but  if  the  knife  is  sharp 
and  properly  adjusted  the  proper  speed  can  soon  be  deter- 


24S— 21 


34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  §  34 

mined.  The  friction  between  the  knife  and  comb  is  great, 
hence,  it  is  necessary  to  oil  these  parts  often.  A  rather  thin 
oil  and  one  that  does  not  combine  with  the  oil  in  the  wool 
to  form  a  gum  should  be  used. 

Shearing  machines  that  are  operated  by  hand  are  smaller 
and  less  efficient  from  the  standpoint  of  speed  in  shearing 
than  are  the  machines  that  are  operated  by  some  mechanical 
motor.  This  is  true  not  only  because  they  have  less  capacity 
but  also  because  the  power  applied  to  them  is  not  even  and 
regular.  In  places  where  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  to  be 
shorn,  a  large  shearing  plant  is  often  established  with  a 
number  of  machines,  which  are  driven  by  steam,  gasoline,  or 
electric  power. 

34.  Detailed  Operations  in  Shearing  a  Sheep. — "Whether 
hand  or  machine  shearing  is  employed,  much  of  the  skill  in 
speed  and  in  properly  removing  the  fleece  depends  on  the 
way  in  which  the  sheep  is  held.  Briefly  stated,  proper 
•holding  involves  keeping  the  sheep  in  such  a  position  that 
the  operator  can  easily  get  at  the  different  parts  of  the  body 
and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  feet  of  the  sheep  from  any 
solid  surface.  Whenever  the  feet  touch  a  solid  surface  the 
animal  usually  begins  to  struggle,  and  the  result  is  likely  to 
be  a  torn  fleece.  The  method  of  holding  sheep  while  they 
are  being  shorn  that  is  described  here  will,  if  carefully  studied 
and  practiced,  prove  a  great  help  to  shearers  in  overcoming 
some  of  the  many  difficulties  usually  encountered. 

After  making  everything  ready  for  shearing — that  is, 
having  cleaned  the  shearing  floor  of  all  chaff,  dust,  or  dirt; 
completed  arrangements  for  storing  the  fleeces;  sharpened 
and  placed  the  shears  in  position  for  use;  and  placed  the 
sheep  in  an  enclosure,  near  at  hand,  where  they  can  be 
caught  easily — the  shearer  catches  a  sheep,  leads  it  on  to  the 
shearing  floor,  throws  and  sets  it  on  its  hind  quarters  in  the 
manner  described   for  handling  a  sheep  as  given  elsewhere. 

The  shearer  then  assumes  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  2 
and  holds  the  sheep  with  his  legs  and  left  hand.  The  shearing 
is  done  with  the  right  hand  and  is  begun  by  opening  the 


§34 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


35 


fleece  from  the  brisket  to  the  under  side  of  the  lower  jaw 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  After  shearing  a  few  swaths  up 
along  the  throat,  the  head  of  the  sheep  is  turned  toward  the 
shearer  and  the  left  side  of  the  head  and  neck  is  shorn.  The 
left  arm  of  the  shearer  may  then  be  used  to  control  the  sheep's 
head,  and  his  left  hand  will  be  free  to  aid  in  keeping  the  skin 
of  the  sheep  smooth  just  in  front  of  the  shears.     The  fleece 


Pig.  2 

should  remain  intact;  it  should  not  be  pulled  or  pushed  but 
should  fall  away  from  the  animal  as  it  is  shorn.  The  shearer 
then  removes  the  wool  from  the  side  of  the  neck  and  shoulder, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  by  shearing  from  the  throat,  leg,  and  the 
under  side  of  the  sheep  to  within  about  2  inches  of  a  line 
immediately  over  the  backbone.  It  is  considered  poor 
practice  to  shear  over  the  backbone  at  this  time,  because  it 


36 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§34 


is  almost  sure  to  result  in  an  unevenly  shorn  surface.  As 
soon  as  the  left  fore  leg  and  shoulder  are  shorn  the  sheep's 
left  fore  leg  is  placed  behind  the  shearer's  right  leg.  This 
gets  the  sheep's  leg  out  of  the  way  of  the  hand  operating  the 
shears  and  partly  stretches  the  skin  over  the  side  of  the 
sheep,   thus  making  a  comparatively  smooth  surface  over 


Fig.  3 

which  to  work  while  shearing  the  left  side  of  the  sheep  from 
belly  to  back,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

After  shearing  the  side,  flank,  and  front  part  of  the  left 
hind  leg,  the  shearer's  left  hand  should  be  pressed  on  the  flank 
and  against  the  stifle  joint  of  the  sheep  so  as  to  force  its  hind 
leg  to  remain  extended  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  This  position 
allows  the  operator  to  shear  from  the  hoof  up  over  the  thigh 
to  the  back,  and  over  the  back  of  the  hind  leg  to  the  tail. 


v 


Fig.  4 


37 


^\ 


38 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§34 


It  is  by  making  long  swaths  through  the  wool  that  the  shearer 
is  able  to  make  good  time  and  to  do  nice,  smooth  work. 
The  sheep's  head,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  is  practically 
free  but  the  shearer  is  usually  able  to  keep  it  in  control  by 
means  of  his  left  elbow  and  legs.  After  shearing  down  over 
the  left  hind  leg  and  around  the  tail,  the  shearer  should  gently 
grasp  the  sheep  just  back  of  its  right  ear  with  his  left  hand. 
The  neck  is  then  extended  almost  straight  with  the  back 
and  is  supported  by  the  shearer's  left  hand  and  leg.     At  the 


Fig.  6 

same  time  the  shearer's  right  foot  is  placed  back  of  the 
sheep's  left  hind  leg,  and  the  shearer's  right  knee  pressed 
firmly  but  lightly  against  the  left  side  of  the  sheep.  In  this 
position,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  the  shearer  can  quickly  and  smoothly 
remove  a  considerable  portion  of  the  fleece  by  cutting  a  few 
swaths  over  the  back  from  the  tail  to  the  ears.  After  shear- 
ing about  3  or  4  inches  past  the  middle  line  of  the  back,  the 
shearer  should  remove  his  knee  from  the  sheep's  side  and 
with  the  left  hand  lift  the  sheep  to  nearly  an  upright  position, 


8  :;i 


SHEEP  M  AX  AC.  E  ME  NT 


39 


supported  by  the  shearer's  right  leg  at  its  back  and  side,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7,  and  by  his  left  leg,  which  is  placed  between 
the  fore  legs  of  the  sheep  and  along  its  left  side.  Then,  after 
the  right  side  of  the  head  and  neck  is  sheared,  the  shears  can 
be  pushed  well  into  the  wool  and  the  fleece  rolled  off  at  a 
rapid  rate,  the  shearer  changing  his  position  slightly  as  he 


/ 


Fig. 


cuts  down  over  the  right  side,  from  back  to  belly,  to  the 
position  shown  in  Fig.  8.  In  this  position  the  shearer  sup- 
ports the  sheep's  breast  and  shoulders  with  his  legs,  controls 
its  head  with  his  left  elbow,  and  shears  down  the  side  to  the 
flank,  allowing  the  sheep  to  drop  gradually  toward  him  so 
as  to  obtain  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  9.     This  is  a  good 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  9 


40 


§34 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


41 


position  from  which  to  shear  over  the  side  of  the  sheep's 
right  hind  leg;  and  by  allowing  the  sheep  to  recline  more  and 
more  until  its  left  shoulder  rests  on  his  feet,  the  shearer  is 
in  a  good  position  to  shear  the  back  part  of  the  sheep's  right 
hind  leg,  thus  detaching  the  main  portion  of  the  fleece,  which 
should  be  moved  a  little  to  one  side.  The  sheep  is  then  set 
up  on  its  hind  quarters,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  in  which  position 


Fig.  10 

the  brisket  can  be  easily  shorn,  and  by  raising  the  forelegs 
with  the  left  arm  the  shearer  has  the  sheep  in  a  good  position 
to  shear  its  belly.  After  shearing  the  belly,  the  shearer 
should  place  his  left  hand  against  the  sheep's  flank,  catch 
the  skin  and  by  pressing  against  the  sheep's  right  hind  leg 
will  cause  it  to  extend,  as  shown  in  Fig  11.  In  this  position 
the  shearer  should  have  little  or  no  trouble  in  cleaning  the 
leg  of  all  wool  from  the  hoof  to  the  body.     By  turning  the 


42 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


§34 


sheep  a  little  to  the  left  and  by  pressing  the  hand  on  its  left 
flank  and  hind  leg,  that  leg  will  be  in  a  good  position  to  be 
cleaned  by  shearing  from  the  body  to  the  hoof.  The  shearer 
should  not  attempt  to  hold  the  sheep's  foot  while  shearing 
the  hind  legs,  because  the  animal  is  almost  sure  to  kick  and 
struggle  to  get  loose.  After  turning  the  sheep  loose,  the  fleece 
should  be  removed  from  the  floor,  tied  in  a  neat  bundle  and 
stored. 


■  .^A^oi»eaaf.L.«>j^,i,lj1JLi  ^^ji  .rf~s*^.ft*».. 


Fig.  11 

35.  Marketing  of  Wool. — Wool  may  be  sold  to  a  local 
wool  buyer  or  it  may  be  consigned  to  some  commission  house. 
If  there  is  a  strong  demand  for  wool  at  shearing  time  and 
manufacturers  are  waiting  for  the  clip,  the  wool  grower  will 
probably  be  offered  liberal  prices  for  his  wool  clip  as  soon  as 
it  is  shorn.  On  large  sheep  ranges  where  the  annual  clip 
ranges  from  10,000  to  20,000  pounds,  the  clip  is  often  sold 
before  it  is  shorn.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  demand  for 
wool  is  light,  the  local  buyers  are  indifferent  about  buying 
and   usually  offer  only  the  lowest  market  price.     Likewise, 


§  34  SHEEP  MANAGEMENT  |:; 

the  producer  is  likely  to  feel  disinclined  to  consign  his  wool 
clip  to  a  commission  house,  and  producers  who  can  afford 
to  do  so  usually  hold  their  wool  clip;  that  is,  they  refuse  to 
sell  their  wool  for  a  year  or  so,  hoping  for  higher  prices.  Each 
wool  grower  must  decide  for  himself  whether  or  not  he  can 
afford  to  sell  his  wool  clip  for  the  current  market  price  at 
the  time  or  shortly  after  the  clip  is  shorn. 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


HORSE  BARNS 


GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  HORSE  BARNS 

1.  A  structure  of  any  kind  designed  for  the  storage  of 
farm  products  or  the  sheltering  of  farm  animals,  or  both, 
is  termed  a  barn.  A  barn  may  be  an  elaborate  building  or 
a  simple  shed  with  either  open  or  enclosed  sides,  according 
to  the  purpose  it  is  intended  to  serve.  A  barn  designed 
wholly  or  partly  for  the  sheltering  of  horses  is  usually  termed 
a  horse  barn.  Barns  of  this  type  and  auxiliary  buildings  are 
the  only  structures  that  will  be  discussed  in  this  Section. 

A  horse  barn  should  be  constructed  so  that  it  will  be 
adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  region  in  which  it  is  built, 
be  suitable  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended,  and 
possess  as  many  conveniences  as  possible.  It  should  be 
warm  enough  to  protect  the  animals  against  cold  weather, 
and  cool  enough  to  protect  them  from  excessive  heat  in  sum- 
mer. The  interior  should  be  protected  from  rain  or  snow, 
and  the  site  should  be  dry  or  well-drained  ground  where 
water  will  not  flow  into  the  barn  from  the  surface. 

One  of  the  most  important  requirements  for  a  horse  barn 
is  that  it  have  suitable  sanitary  provisions.  Although  the 
barn  should  be  built  as  cheaply  as  possible,  economy  should 
not  be  practiced  to  the  extent  that  the  efficiency  of  the  barn 
will  be  impaired  or  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  animals 
endangered.  If  a  barn  is  constructed  so  that  it  affords  a 
breeding  or  a  hibernating  place   for  disease   germs,   it  will 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY.        ENTERED   AT    STATIONERS-    HALL,    LONDON 

§35 


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§  :r>      HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS        3 

likely  prove  to  be  an  expensive  building,  no  matter  how 
cheaply  it  may  have  been  built.  Likewise,  if  the  barn  is 
dark,  damp,  or  poorly  ventilated,  it  will  not  be  conducive 
to  health  and  vigor  in  the  animals.  Horses,  perhaps,  more 
than  any  other  kind  of-  domestic  animal,  require  quarters  in 
which  their  health  and  consequently  their  efficiency  will  not 
be  impaired. 

HORSE  BARNS  FOR  VARIOUS  PURPOSES 

2.  General-Purpose  Horse  Barns. — In  planning  a  general- 
purpose  horse  barn  such  as  is  commonly  used  on  farms, 
the  farmer  or  horseman  should  be  largely  guided  by  the  size 
of  the  farm  and  the  number  of  horses  to  be  housed.  Such 
a  barn  should  have  stabling  capacity  for  all  of  the  work 
horses,  brood  mares,  foals,  and  young  growing  horses  on  the 
farm,  and  there  should  be  additional  space  to  allow  for  any 
possible  future  increase.  There  should  also  be  ample  room 
for  the  storage  of  grain  and  hay. 

In  Fig.  1  is  illustrated  the  first-floor  plan  and  dimensions 
of  a  well-arranged  horse  barn  for  general  purposes.  This  plan 
provides  a  number  of  valuable  features,  although  it  is  likely 
that  the  farmer  or  horseman  will  find  it  desirable  to  vary 
somewhat  from  it  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  his 
particular  case. 

It  is  advisable  to  have  the  work  stock  stabled  in  one  part 
of  a  general-purpose  horse  barn  and  the  breeding  horses  and 
young  growing  stock  in  another.  The  barn  should  be 
equipped  with  a  few  box  stalls  for  brood  mares,  a  few  small 
stalls  for  colts,  a  hospital  stall  for  sick  animals,  and  a  num- 
ber of  single  and  double  tie  stalls  for  the  work  stock.  Tie 
stalls  are  those  in  which  the  animals  are  confined  by  means 
of  halters.  More  horses  can  be  accommodated  on  the  same 
floor  area  by  using  double  tie  stalls  rather  than  single  tie 
stalls,  but  the  chances  for  injury  to  the  animals  is  greater. 
To  overcome,  in  a  measure,  the  risk  of  injury,  a  swinging  bail 
such  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2  is  convenient.  In  (a)  is  shown 
the  bail  in  place,  suspended  in  the  middle  of  the  stall  about 
3  or  3^  feet  from  the  floor,  one  end   being  fastened  to  the 


HORSE  BARXS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


manger  and  the  other  supported  by  a  rope  suspended  from 
the  loft  floor;  in  (6)  is  shown  the  method  of  fastening  the 
front  end  of  the  bail  to  the  manger  so  that  the  bail  will  have 
free  play.  Such  a  bail  can  be  made  by  fastening  two  planks 
together  by  means  of  iron  straps  and  rings,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  If  made  in  this  way,  a  bail  is  flexible  and  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  an  animal  to  be  injured  by  it.  A  double 
tie  stall  8  feet  wide  is  sufficiently  large  for  a  pair  of  1,000- 
pound  horses,  each  of  which  would  require  a  ^-foot  single 
stall;  a  pair  of  1,250-pound  horses  should  have  a  9-foot  stall; 


Fig.  2 

and  a  pair  of  horses  each  weighing  1,600  pounds  or  over, 
should  have  a  stall  10  feet  wide.  Single  tie  stalls  should  be 
at  least  6  inches  wider  than  one-half  the  widths  just  given 
for  double  stalls,  in  order  that  there  may  be  room  enough 
for  the  animals  to  lie  down  in  comfort.  The  partitions 
between  the  stalls  should  be  from  9  to  10  feet  long,  depending 
on  the  size  of  the  horses. 

A  harness  room  should  be  provided  in  the  section  in  which 
the  work  stock  is  stabled.  The  custom  of  hanging  the  har- 
ness on  hooks  behind  the  horses  is  to  be  severely  criticised, 


8  35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND   PADDOCKS 


as  the  harness  is  likely  to  be  knocked  down  and  tramped  in 
the  dirt,  or  chewed  by  rats,  and  there  is  certain  to  be  more 
harness  and  special  parts  about  than  are  used  regularly. 
In  addition,  the  ammonia  gas  that  arises  from  manure  is 
very  destructive  to  leather,  and  a  new  harness  left  hanging 


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exposed  to  it  will  deteriorate  and  become  worthless  quite  as 
soon  as  those  in  daily  use  that  are  given  good  care. 

It  is  usually  not  advisable  to  arrange  for  a  carriage  room 
in  a  general-purpose  horse  barn,  because  of  the  presence  of 
ammonia  gas,  which  is  destructive,  also,  to  varnish,  and 
because  more  or  less  dust  and  trash  will  be  blown  by  the  wind 

243—22 


6 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


into  the  rig  or  rigs  if  the  doors  and  walls  of  the  room  are  not 
absolutely  tight.  However,  a  carriage  house  within  the  barn 
has  the  advantage  of  affording  a  dry  place  in  which  horses 
can  be  hitched  to  vehicles  during  muddy  times  and  in  bad 
weather. 

A  watering  tank  or  trough  located  within  the  barn  will  be 
found  convenient  for  watering  the  stock,  especially  during 
bad  weather,  and  water  in  such  a  tank  will  not  freeze  as 
readily  as  it  would  if  out  of  doors;  hence,  less  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  keeping  the  tank  free  from  ice  during  winter. 

3.  Barns  for  Breeding  Horses. — In  Fig.  3  is  illustrated  the 
first-floor  plan  and  dimensions  of  a  barn  for  the  breeding  of 


horses.  Fig.  4  shows  an  elevation  view  of  the  same  barn. 
This  barn  is  built  on  the  three  sides  of  a  rectangle,  thus  pro- 
viding an  open  court  between  the  wings.  The  second  floor 
can  be  arranged  as  desired.  Although  the  plan  shown  pro- 
vides the  essential  features  required  in  a  breeding  barn  for 
horses,  it  is  probable  that  some  variations  will  be  found 
desirable  by  different  farmers  or  horsemen. 

A  breeding  barn  should  be  equipped  principally  with  box 
stalls,  although  there  should  be  a  few  tie  stalls  in  which  extra 
horses  can  be  cared  for.  Some  of  the  box  stalls  should  be 
built  with  a  manger  and  two  feed  troughs,  so  that  they  will 
accommodate  two  horses  in  case  it  becomes  necessary  to 
house  an  extra  number  of  animals.     The  extra  trough  also 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND   PADDOCKS 


furnishes  a  place  to  feed  a  foal  beside  its  mother  and  where 
it  may  be  taught  to  stand  tied.  The  besl  plan  for  a  breeding 
barn  is  one  with  the  box  stalls  on  each  side  and  an  alley 
through  the  central  part  of  the  building. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  board  box  stalls  up  higher  than  is 
necessary,  as  it  obstructs  ventilation  and  also  the  view  from 
one  part  of  the  barn  to  another;  usually  5  feet  will  be  suf- 
ficient. Wire  stall  guards  made  for  this  purpose,  or  railings 
made  of  J-ineh  hollow  iron  rods  set  vertically,  should  be  used 
above  the  solid  part  of  the  partition  to  prevent  the  horses 

from  playing  and  fight- 
ing with  companions  in 
adjoining    stalls.       The 
solid  part  of  the  parti- 
tion   should    be     made 
heavy    and    strong    for 
stallions ;  it  is  advisable 
to  use  some  hard  wood 
for    this    purpose.     An 
inclined  wainscoting 
around    the    bottom    of 
the    wall,    as    shown  in 
Fig.  5,  will  aid  in  pre- 
venting the  horses  from 
bumping     their     hocks 
and  rubbing  their  tails. 
This    wainscoting    need 
not  be  over  2J  feet  high 
and   should  stand  out   about    1    foot    from  the  wall  at  the 
bottom,  as  shown  by  the  dimensions  given  in  the  illustration 
A  few  box  stalls  for  the  use  of  brood  mares  at  foaling  time 
should  be  planned  for,   and  these  should  be  provided  with 
portable  mangers  and  feed  troughs.     Such  stalls  should  be 
light  and  airy,  and  arranged  so  that  as  much  sunlight  as  pos- 
sible may  penetrate  them  in  order  that  they  may  be  kept  in 
a  sanitary  condition.     There  should  be  no  sharp  projections 
or  openings  that  would  be  likely  to  injure  the  foal;  foals  are 
sometimes  lost  after  being  cast  by  getting  their  legs  beneath 


Pig.  5 


HORSE  BARXS  AND  PADDOCKS 


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-        ■       r.-.  L  '- 
14'  x  16' 


BOX  STALL 
1+'  x  16' 


BOX    STALL 


a  partition  that  docs  not  fit  close  to  the  floor.  Box  stalls 
used  for  draft  brood  mares  previous  to  foaling  should  not 
be  less  than  12  ft.  X  14  ft.,  and  14  ft.  X  1-4  ft.  is  a  better 
size.  Foaling  stalls  should  be  at  least  1-4  ft.  X  16  ft.  for 
draft  mares  and  12  ft.  X  1-4  ft.  for  light  mares.  There  is  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  Icind  of  a  stall  for  a 
service  stallion.     Some  horsemen  prefer  one  absolutely  tight 

so  that  the  stallion 
cannot  see  what  is 
going  on  about  the 
barn ;  others  claim 
that  he  is  more  con- 
tent when  he  has  the 
companionship  of 
other  horses  stabled 
near  him  and  can  see 
about .  Notwith- 
standing these  differ- 
ences of  opinion,  it  is 
a  fact  that  stallions 
usually  fret  a  good 
deal  when  the  other 
horses  are  out  of  the 
barn.  If  stallions  are 
worked  until  they 
are  tired  each  day, 
as  they  should  be, 
it  makes  little  dif- 
ference whether  the 
stall  is  open  or  closed ; 
but,  where  they  are  not  worked  and  are  given  only  limited 
exercise,  spending  most  of  their  time  in  the  barn,  a  closed 
box  stall  is  best.  A  box  stall  for  a  draft  stallion  should  be 
14  ft.  X  16  ft.;  a  light  stallion  will  have  sufficient  room  in 
one  12  ft.  X  14  ft. 

The  feeding  of  hay  in  a  breeding  barn  may  be  arranged 
for  by  providing  chutes  from  the  mow  to  the  mangers,  or  it 
may  be  done  from  the  alley,  the  latter  method  being  the  more 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AX  I)   PADDOCKS 


desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  the  health  of  the  horses. 
The  grain  can  be  fed  from  a  cart  or  feed  carrier  run  through 
the  alley. 

4.  Barns  for  Stallions. — If  more  than  one  service  stallion 
is  kept,  it  is  advisable  to  build  a  small  barn  in  which  all  of 
them  may  be  stabled.  This  serves  the  purpose  of  keeping 
the  stallions  quiet  and  away  from  young  stallions,  which  they 
would  excite.  Fig.  G  illustrates  the  first-floor  plan  and 
dimensions  of  a  convenient  barn  for  stallions,  and  Fig.  7 
shows  the  front  and  side  elevations  of  the  same  barn.     The 


■■■■  ■■<■■ 


Fig.  7 

mares  are  teased  and  bred  in  an  enclosed  lean-to  shed  at  the 
rear  end  of  the  barn;  the  lean-to  is  provided  with  a  teasing 
pole  and  breeding  chute,  the  detailed  appearance  and  arrange- 
ment of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  teasing  pole  a  should 
be  a  round  piece  of  timber  of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand 
considerable  strain.  It  should  be  fastened  securely  about 
3  feet  above  the  ground  and  be  about  10  feet  in  length.  The 
breeding  chute  b  should  be  constructed  of  strong  material; 
it  should  be  about  9  feet  in  length  and  about  2  feet  8  inches 
wide.  The  highest  point  of  the  sides  should  be  3 h  feet  above 
the  ground.  The  use  of  a  teasing  pole  and  breeding  chute 
is  explained  in  a  subsequent  Section. 


10 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


A  stallion  barn  should  be  equipped  with  box  stalls  only, 
and  these  should  be  made  strong.     To  allow  for  other  use, 


Fig.  S 

some  of  the  stalls  may  be  built  with  a  combination  feature 
such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  9;  by  this  means  a  box  stall  can  be 
converted  into  two  tie  stalls  should  occasion  demand.  In 
the  figure,  (a)  shows  a  box  stall  with  a  permanent  swinging 
door  a  and  a  removable  door  b.  In  (b),  the  swinging  door  a 
is  shown  in  place  after  having  been  merely  swung  around  at 
right  angles  to  its  former  position,  and  the  removable  door  b 
has  been  removed  from  its  former  hinges  and  hung  on  other 


hinges  in  the  manger  end  of  the  stall  so  that  it  joins  a  at  the 
jamb  c,  which  is  an  extra  piece  that  must  be.  fitted  in  place 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


11 


when  the  change  is  made.  By  having  the  upper  part  of  the 
partitions  provided  with  metal  stall  guards  d,  as  shown  in 
both  (a)  and  (6),  rather  than  having  each  stall  tightly 
enclosed,'  it  is  much  easier  to  provide  thorough  ventilation. 

There  should  be  an  office  and  sleeping  quarters  for  attend- 
ants, and  a  harness  room  for  bridles,  blankets,  and  all  neces- 
sary trappings.  Provision  should  be  made  inside  of  the  barn 
for  water,  for  machinery  for  crushing  grain  and  chaffing  hay, 
and  for  a  feed  mixing  room. 

When  it  is  the  custom  to  keep  stallions  in  small  individual 
paddocks,  a  convenient  arrangement  is  to  provide  a  small 
building  at  the  intersection  of  two  or  more  of  the  paddocks. 


■ 


Fig.  10 

Such  a  building  may  have  a  loft  for  the  storage  of  feed,  or 
be  a  simple  shed  like  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  10.  The  shed 
illustrated  is  of  a  type  commonly  used  in  Scotland.  It  is 
placed  at  the  intersection  of  two  paddocks  and  is  designed 
to  accommodate  two  animals. 

5.  Barns  for  Brood  Mares  and  Colts. — Where  the  winters 
are  not  too  severe,  an  open  shed  facing  the  south  or  a  com- 
bination of  three  sheds,  forming  a  court,  can  be  used  to 
advantage  in  the  feeding  and  care  of  brood  mares  that  are 
not  too  far  advanced  in  pregnancy  and  of  colts  that  are 
past  their  first  winter.  Such  animals,  if  they  are  healthy 
and  vigorous  and  have  plenty  of  feed  and  the  protection  of 


I 


(C) 


1 
1 

.L 

1 

• 

! 

II 

1 

: 

~3:Ch- 

-j'-o'-* 

1 

11' 


§35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  13 

an  open  shed  in  which  to  run,  will  do  as  well  as  when  stabled, 
and   much   less   work   will   be   required   in   caring  for  them. 
The  greatest  danger  of  their  injuring  each  other  by  kicking 
and  biting  is  while  feeding.     In  Fig.  11  is  illustrated  a  small 
open  barn  that  is  provided  with  the  proper  kind  of  stalls 
for  safe  feeding.     In   (a)   is  shown  the  general  plan  of  the 
barn  with  a  section  cut  away  to  show  the  feed  racks;  in  (b) 
and    (t),    end   and   open   side   elevations,    respectively,    with 
dimensions;  and  in  (d),  the  details  and  dimensions  of  the  feed 
rack  and  grain  box.     The  grain  boxes  are  located  in  the  front 
end  of  the  stalls,  and  in  front  of  the  stalls  is  a  narrow  feed 
alley  through  which  the  feeder  can  pass  in  feeding  the  grain. 
The  hay  or  other  roughage  is  fed  from  the  loft  above,  which 
should  be  large  enough  to  provide  storage  for  at  least  several 
loads  at  a  time.     The  grain  is  fed  from  the  alley  through 
openings,   two  of  which   are  shown  in    (d).     The  stalls  are 
constructed  3  feet  wide  so  as  to  admit  a  single  animal  with- 
out any  spare  room  on  the  side,  and  10  feet  long  to  prevent 
them   from   kicking   each   other   while   feeding  in   the   stall. 
Scarcely  ever  will  even  the  most  vicious  horse  attack  another 
directly  from  the  rear,  because  of  the  fear  of  being  kicked. 
A  colt  or  brood  mare  can  feed  in  one  of  these  stalls  in  perfect 
safety  and  without  fear  of  being  driven  away  by  the  other 
animals.     The  stall  partitions  should  be  constructed  out  of 
strong  material  and  erected  in  a  substantial  way. 

6.  Sale  Barns. — The  matter  of  convenience  in  feeding 
and  caring  for  horses  is  of  less  importance  in  a  sale  barn  than 
m  any  other.  The  first  consideration  is  the  presenting  of  the 
horses  to  the  public  in  the  most  attractive  way.  It  frequently 
happens  that  the  first  impressions  of  a  customer  are  lasting; 
it  is  a  good  plan,  therefore,  to  use  every  influence  possible 
to  make  a  good  impression  on  him  as  he  enters  the  barn. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  this  is  best  done  by  arranging 
the  stalls  in  two  rows  so  that  the  heads  of  the  horses  are 
toward  the  outside  of  the  building,  and  the  rear  ends  toward 
the  inside.  When  in  a  stall,  more  of  a  horse  can  be  seen 
from  a  rear  than  from  a  front  view.      The  space  between  the 


1 

w 

«3 

J 

J 

«! 

*       * 

I       «        ^ 

2 
It 

s! 

BOX  STALL 


BOX  STALL 


«J 

j 

J 

< 

y 

^   , 

[- 10' 


30X  STALL; 
l2x  !£' 


FEED  ROGOT 


/I 


h-M 


harness  naon 


/  '°;,4 


SALE  AND  VEHICLE 
FLOOR- 


H 


FUEL  ROOM 
/        7'x  1 1' 


/ 


OFFICE 
14' x  16' 


BOX  STALL. 
IZ'x  IS' 


BOX  STALL 


BOX  STALL 
12' x  12' 


BOX   STALL 


•  6e'-o"~ 


Fig.  12 


14 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


15 


two  rows  of  stalls  should  be  sufficiently  wide  to  furnish  ample 
room  for  standing  a  pair  of  horses  on  the  floor  for  inspection. 
Some  part  of  the  barn  should  be  provided  with  artificial 
light,  and  as  much  natural  lighting  from  above  as  possible, 
so  that  the  horses  can  be  shown  to  good  advantage  at  any 
time,  day  or  evening.  An  exercise,  or  run,  shed,  where  the 
action  of  horses  may  be  shown  in  bad  weather,  will  be  found 
useful,  although  this  is  not  necessary.  The  first-floor  plan 
and  dimensions  of  a  good  sale  barn  are  shown  in  Fig.  12,  and 
the  front  elevation  is  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

Generally,  in  planning  a  sale  barn,  no  provision  is  made 
for  feeding  the  animals  from  in  front  of  the  stalls ;  the  usual 


■  rriTTT  [r 


BIT 
m 


Fig.  13 

practice  is  to  provide  a  chute  leading  from  the  hay  loft  to 
the  mangers  for  the  feeding  of  hay  and  to  have  the  attendant 
carry  the  grain  feed  through  the  stalls  to  the  mangers.  A 
more  convenient  way  to  feed  grain  is  to  provide  a  narrow 
alley  in  front  of  the  mangers ;  if  the  hay  is  to  be  fed  from  the 
alley,  it  should  be  fairly  wide. 

As  a  rule,  only  single  and  double  tie  stalls  are  used  in  a  sale 
barn,  but  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  few  box  stalls  for  sick 
animals. 

A  litter  carrier  that  runs  on  a  steel  track  at  the  rear  of  the 
stalls  is  a  convenient  device  for  removing  the  manure;  or 
the  manure  may  be  raked  into  the  alley,  and  by  means  of  a 


16  HORSE  BARNS  AND  I'ADDOCKS  g  35 

scraper,  such  as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  14,  dragged  to  one  end 
of  the  barn  and  carted  away.  Such  a  scraper  can  easily  be 
made  by  attaching  shafts  and  a  pair  of  handles  to  a  12-inch 
hardwood  board  about  6  feet  long.  Still  another  method  of 
disposing  of  the  manure  is  to  haul  it  away  on  a  wagon  driven 
through  the  barn,  the  manure  being  pitched  into  the  wagon 
directly  from  the  stalls. 

7.     Combination  Carriage  Houses  and  Horse  Barns. — In  a 
combination    carriage    house   and    horse   barn,    the    cafriage 

room  shotild  be  as  far  away  from  where  the  horses  are  stabled 
as  possible,  because  of  the  destructive  effect  of  ammonia  gas 
from  the  manure  on  the  varnish  on  the  vehicle.     The  part 


Fig.  14 

of  the  barn  set  apart  for  carriages  should  be  partitioned  off 
from  the  main  part  and  closed  with  tight  doors  to  exclude 
any  ammonia  gas  that  may  reach  this  part  of  the  barn,  and 
also  to  shut  out  the  dust  and  chaff  carried  by  the  wind. 

If  the  building  is  made  warm  enough  to  prevent  freezing 
inside  in  the  winter,  the  necessity  for  the  immediate  washing 
of  muddy  rigs  as  they  come  in  will  be  somewhat  lessened, 
although  it  is  always  destructive  to  the  varnish  on  vehicles 
to  permit  mud  to  dry  on  them.  For  the  proper  washing  of 
rigs  in  winter,  a  wash  floor  and  some  means  of  heating  the 
water  are  required. 

Some  horsemen  prefer  a  barn  arranged  for  keeping  the  car- 
riages on  the  second  floor,  an  elevator  being  used  for  hoisting 


§  35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND   PADDOCKS 


17 


and  lowering  them  from  and  to  the  first  floor,  where  the  hitch- 
ing is  done.  This  makes  a  satisfactory  arrangement,  provided 
the  elevator  can  be  easily  operated.  Where  the  location  will 
permit,  a  basement  barn  can  often  be  used  to  good  advantage 
for  a  combination  carriage  house  and  horse  barn,  the  base- 
ment floor  bein£  used  for  the  horses  and  the  second  floor  for 


Fig.  15 

the  carriages.  The  principal  difficulty  of  such  an  arrange- 
ment is  in  getting  the  horses  to  the  second  floor.  One  way 
of  doing  this  is  by  means  of  a  winding  incline,  such  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  15.  Although  most  horses  will  readily  ascend 
and  descend  this  incline,  brood  mares  should  not  be  made  to 
go  up  and  down  it,  for  but  few  colts  have  been  raised  where 


IS 


HORSE  BARXS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§  35 


mares  have  been  required  to  climb  such  a  steep  slope  every 

day. 

8.     Fanciers'  Horse  Barns. — The  construction  and  arrange- 
ment  of   a   fancier's   horse   barn   should   not   be   considered 


a 


sinks    Theater. 


~ 


BV      s  -._ 
1    C¥- 


■^  ■ 


SIN 

—  5'  — 


LAUNDRY  \ 

I   ^-      5Vi  X  18'  \ 

7upT-T    1\ 


u 


OFFICE 
15'  x  18' 


CARfOAOE   ?_::.'•■. 

Z7'x  36' 


BOX  STALL 
10'x  li'Al 


3  OV  STALL 


BOX  STALL 
10'x  12 


2.0-0'' -J 


GROUND  FLOOR, 


BED  ROOM 
Bl'a  16' 


BATH- 
ROOM 


HAY 

-  n 


z 


/   LIVIKa  ROOM 
ir'«i6' 


.SECOND  FLODKl 

Fig.  16 

wholly  from  the  standpoint  of  utility.  A  great  deal  of  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  architectural  effect  of  both  the 
exterior  and  the  interior,  and  a  beautiful  setting  should  be 
given  by  means  of  landscape  gardening.  In  such  a  building, 
everything   should   be   kept   scrupulously   clean   and   fit   for 


§35  HORSE  BARNS  AND   PADDOCKS  19 

inspection  by  visitors  at  all  times.  When  this  condition  is 
maintained,  there  is  no  objection  to  having  the  vehicles 
housed  within  the  same  building,  although  it  is  desirable  to 
have  them  enlosed  in  a  tight  room  as  a  protection  against 
dust.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  horses  should  be  provided  with 
box  stalls;  stalls  10  ft.X  12  ft.  will  be  of  ample  size  for  light 
horses. 

The  harness  room  should  be  commodious,  the  harness  hung 
in  full  view,  and  the  trappings  displayed  in  cases.  There 
should  be  a  small  room  equipped  with  sinks,  a  stove,  and  some 
provision  for  the  heating  of  water  so  that  the  harness  may  be 
cleaned  at  any  time;  it  will  also  be  found  convenient  to  have 
in  the  room  a  work  bench  and  the  necessary  tools  for  making 
small  repairs  about  the  stable.  There  should  be  a  room  in 
which  to  prepare  feed,  a  cupboard  for  the  stable  tools,  and 
an  office  equipped  with  fixtures  and  furnishings  in  keeping 
with  the  character  of  the  barn.  If  the  proprietor  is  a  lover 
of  saddle  horses  and  hunting,  the  walls  of  the  office  can  be 
appropriately  decorated  with  scenes  of  hunting  and  cross- 
country riding,  crop  sticks,  a  bridle  or  two,  etc.  The  building 
should  also  contain  quarters  for  the  coachman  and  other 
attendants,  if  such  are  employed;  these  quarters  can  best 
be  provided  for  on  the  second  floor.  The  living  rooms  for 
all  attendants  should  be  properly  ventilated  and  heated,  and 
there  should  be  a  bathroom  and  toilet  facilities,  so  that  those 
who  care  for  the  horses  can  keep  clean  and  comfortable. 

Fig.  16  illustrates  the  plans  and  dimensions  for  the  first 
and  second  floors  of  an  attractive  building  suitable  for  a 
fancier's  barn,  in  which  many  of  the  common  features  of  a 
horse  barn  are  absent.  Fig.  17  shows  the  front  elevation 
of  the  same  barn. 

9.  Horse  Barns  for  Town  Lots. — A  town-lot  horse  barn 
is  generally  a  small  building,  as  there  are  usually  not  more 
than  two  or  three  horses  to  be  accommodated  in  such  quarters. 
The  architecture  of  the  barn  should  harmonize  with  that  of 
the  dwelling  and  give  as  little  of  the  appearance  of  an  ordinary 
barn  as  possible.     Where  the  floor  space  will  permit,  each 


20 


HORSE   BARN'S  AND   PADDOCKS 


s<  35 


horse  should  have  a  box  stall,  as  they  will  then  get  a  little 
exercise  even  if  they  are  not  taken  out  of  the  barn  every  day, 

g  tea  §#& 


v->U 


Fig.  Vt 


and,  in  addition,  the  horses  are  not  so  likely  to  become  injured 
by  being  kicked.  There  should  be  floor  space  where  a  horse 
may  be  groomed,  har- 


nessed, and  hitched, 
and  cupboards  for 
the  harness  and  trap- 
pings. The  barn 
should  be  piped  for 
water,  and  there 
should  be  a  drained 
floor  where  carriages 
may  be  washed,  and- 
some  means  provided 
for  artificial  lighting, 
electricity  being  pre- 
ferred. 

Because  of  the 
limited  floor  space  in 
such    buildings    it    is 


Fig.  18 


usually  best  to  place  the  feed  bins  on  the  second  floor  and 


*  35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND   PADDOCKS 


21 


spout  the  grain  below  by  means  of  a  partitioned  chute,  such 
as  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  18.  A  chute  about  4  ft.  X  4  ft. 
leading  from  the  mow  to  the  main  floor  below  will  be  found 
convenient  for  feeding  hay.  One  side  of  the  lower  end  of 
this  chute  should  be  provided  with  a  door  from  which  the 
hay  can  be  taken,  or  the  chute  can  be  placed  so  that  the 
hay  may  be  dropped  directly  from  the  mow  to  the  manger. 
A  tight  manure  box  fitted  with  a  lid  should  be  provided  for 
the  manure  and  emptied  frequently.  By  keeping  the  lid 
closed,  foul  odors  will  be  confined  and  flies  will  be  prevented 
from  making  a  breeding  place  of  the  manure. 


Fig.  19 

10.  Basement  Barns. — Basement  barns  in  which  the 
lower  floor  is  partly  or  wholly  underground  art'  not  to  be 
recommended  for  horses  unless  ample  provisions  are  made 
for  light,  ventilation,  and  drainage.  When  these  features 
are  carefully  worked  out,  a  basement  barn  is  a  desirable 
place  for  keeping  horses,  because  it  is  warmer  than  a  barn 
set  entirely  above  ground,  and  usually  offers  a  maximum  of 
convenience  in  the  handling  of  feed  and  manure. 

The  best  location  for  a  basement  barn  is  on  a  hillside  with 
a  southern  exposure.     The  first-story  walls,  particularly  the 


22  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  §  35 

parts  that  are  underground,  should  be  built  of  brick,  stone, 
or  concrete;  the  second-story  walls  may  be  of  wooden 
material,  or  the  walls  of  the  first  story  may  be  continued  on 
up.  In  Fig.  19  is  illustrated  a  desirable  method  of  obtaining 
plenty  of  light  for  the  first  floor  of  a  basement  barn.  On 
the  embankment  side  of  the  barn,  the  hillside  is  excavated 
to  a  width  of  from  8  to  10  feet  and  to  a  depth  sufficient  to 
permit  of  small  windows  being  placed  in  the  basement  on 
that  side.  In  the  illustration,  a  is  a  retaining  wall  to  hold  the 
bank;  b,  a  tile  drain;  and  c,  a  bridge  across  the  excavation. 

11.  Accessory  Carriage  Houses. — A  carriage  house  should 
have  enough  room  on  the  floor  so  that  the  vehicles  will  not 
be  crowded.  For  convenience,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the 
entrance  somewhere  near  the  middle  of  one  side  of  the  build- 
ing so  that  the  carriages  can  be  backed  off  to  either  side  of  a 
central  driveway.  The  art  of  arranging  carriages  in  the  most 
attractive  way  should  be  studied.  They  should  be  grouped 
according  to  size  and  style;  as  a  rule,  they  look  best  when 
placed  so  that  they  present  a  front,  or  a  front  and  side  view 
as  a  person  enters  the  building.  Any  vehicle  on  the  floor 
should  be  readily  accessible  so  that  it  can  be  immediately 
run  out  for  use.  The  door  to  the  main  entrance  of  the  build- 
ing should  be  not  less  than  10J  feet  wide  and  about  the  same 
in  height. 

There  should  be  a  wash  room  in  the  carriage  house  and  this 
should  have  good  drainage,  a  suitable  floor  of  some  non- 
absorbent  material,  preferably  cement,  and  some  means  of 
warming  the  water  so  that  the  task  of  washing  carriages  in 
the  winter  will  be  less  disagreeable  than  when  cold  water  is 
used.  The  wash  room  should  be  well  lighted,  so  that  the 
work  of  cleaning  the  vehicles  may  be  accomplished  with 
satisfaction,  but  direct  sunlight  should  be  avoided  in  the  rest 
of  the  building,  as  it  fades  the  upholstering,  dulls  the  varnish, 
and  attracts  flies. 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


23 


LOCATION   AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  HORSE  BARNS 


SITES    FOR    HORSE     BARNS 

12.  Elevation  of  Site. — In  selecting  the  site  for  a  horse 
barn,  the  first  consideration  should  be  the  elevation  of  the 
land  with  reference  to  the  adjoining  land.  The  best  site  is 
on  a  rather  high  elevation,  where  the  surface  water  will  drain 
away  from  the  building,  but,  of  course,  it  is  possible  to  build 
barns  on   almost   any   site,   if  proper  surface   drainage   and 


Fig.  20 

underdrainage  is  provided.  The  inclination  of  the  land 
should  be  just  enough  to  insure  good  surface  drainage,  as  on 
a  steep  hillside  the  animals  are  likely  to  slip  and  injure  them- 
selves when  the  surface  is  wet  or  covered  with  ice.  If  a 
steep  hillside  must  be  used,  it  is  usually  advisable  to  con- 
struct a  drainage  wall  on  the  hillside,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20, 
so  as  to  shed  the  water  from  around  the  barn  and  paddocks. 
The  wall  may  be  constructed  of  stone,  concrete,  or  brick; 
dirt  would  serve  the  purpose,  but  it  is  unsightly.     All  that 


24  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  §  35 

is  necessary  is  to  check  the  surface  water,  hence  the  wall 
need  not  extend  into  the  ground  much  below  the  frost  line. 

13.  Exposure  of  Site. — An  exposure  with  a  gentle  slope 
to  the  south  is  preferable  to  all  others  for  a  horse  barn.  Such 
an  exposure  is  warm  in  winter  and  the  surface  dries  off 
rapidly  in  wet  weather  through  natural  drainage  and  evapora- 
tion. If  a  southern  slope  cannot  be  had,  one  to  the  southeast 
is  preferable  to  a  southwestern  slope.  In  cool  climates, 
a  windbreak  consisting  of  a  grove  of  trees  on  the  north  and 
west  is  desirable  as  a  protection  against  the  northwest  winds 
of  winter,  but  in  no  case  should  it  be  located  so  as  to  exclude 
sunlight  and  prevent  a  free  circulation  of  fresh  air  around 
the  barn. 

14.  Soil  Requirements  of  Site. — The  best  kind  of  soil  on 
which  to  build  a  horse  barn  is  a  sandy  or  slightly  gravelly 
loam  having  a  sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil;  both  the  soil  and 
subsoil  should  have  depth  enough  to  permit  good  drainage 
and  at  the  same  time  to  serve  as  a  filter  for  the  impurities 
of  the  water  that  may  later  find  its  way  to  a  well,  spring,  or 
running  brook  and  be  used  for  drinking  purposes.  A  soil 
containing  a  large  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  or  refuse  may 
be  very  unhealthful  and  is  especially  objectionable  because 
the  decomposition  constantly  going  on  may  cause  an  unequal 
settling  of  the  building. 

15.  Artificial  Drainage  of  Site. — When  both  the  surface 
soil  and  the  subsoil  of  the  barn  site  are  inclined  to  be  imper- 
vious to  water,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  tile  drains  around  the 
building.  These  drains  should  be  laid  below  the  frost  line 
and  about  1  foot  outside  of  each  wall.  In  excavating  for  the 
foundation  of  a  barn,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  make  the  excava- 
tion a  little  larger  than  is  necessary  for  the  building,  and  then 
put  the  tile  in  place  before  the  dirt  is  filled  in  around  the 
foundation.  Ordinarily,  medium-sized  field  drain  tile,  if 
careftilly  laid,  will  prove  satisfactory. 

16.  Proximity  of  Different  Barns. — As  a  matter  of  pro- 
tection against  fire,  it  is  not  a  good  plan  to  put  horse  barns 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  25 

that  are  constructed  of  inflammable  material  very  near  each 
other  or  very  near  other  buildings.  When  several  barns  are 
located  near  each  other  there  is  danger,  also,  of  a  contagious  or 
infectious  disease  getting  started  in  one  and  infecting  the 
animals  in  all  the  barns.  This  danger  is  lessened,  if  not 
entirely  eliminated,  by  having  the  barns  more  widely  sepa- 
rated, and  having  the  attendants  exercise  care  not  to  go 
directly  from  an  infected  barn  to  one  not  infected.  In 
addition  to  these  points,  there  is  also  an  advantage  in  the 
matter  of  arrangement  of  paddocks  about  the  barns  if  the 
latter  are  not  located  close  together. 

17.  Other  Factors  Influencing  Choice  of  Site. — In  selecting 
a  site  for  a  horse  barn,  it  is  advisable  to  know  something  of 
the  depth  at  which  water  can  be  obtained  in  the  ground 
adjacent  to  the  site.  If  it  would  be  necessary  to  sink  a  well 
to  a  considerable  depth  in  order  to  have  water  the  year  round, 
it  might  be  more  economical  to  choose  a  location  for  the 
barn  where  water  can  be  provided  more  easily.  A  stream 
of  pure  water  running  near  the  barn,  or  a  spring  from  which 
water  may  be  piped  for  the  animals,  is  a  valuable  asset  to  the 
barn  site. 

If  the  barn  can  be  arranged  with  reference  to  the  pastures 
so  that  the  horses  will  be  obliged  to  come  near  the  barn  for 
water,  they  will  become  more  accustomed  to  persons  and  can 
be  more  carefully  watched  than  if  the  relative  arrangement 
of  the  barn  and  pastures  will  not  permit  this.  If  many 
horses  of  various  ages  are  to  be  accommodated,  it  may  be 
advisable  to  provide  barns  on  different  parts  of  the  farm  in 
order  that  the  animals  may  be  kept  separated;  this  will 
be  desirable  also  in  that  the  distance  to  haul  the  hay  to  the 
barns  and  the  manure  to  the  fields  will  be  short. 


FOUNDATIONS  FOR  HORSE  BARNS 

18.  Cement  blocks,  stone,  brick,  and  concrete  are  the 
only  materials  suitable  for  horse-barn  foundations.  Of  these 
materials,  concrete  is  usually  the  cheapest  where  the  materials 
for  making  it  are  available,  as  all  the  labor  of  construction 


26 


HORSE  BARXS  AXD  PADDOCKS 


§35 


can.be  done  by  the  regular  farm  help,  if  desired.  Cement 
blocks  can  be  rapidly  laid  up  in  a  wall,  are  durable,  and,  when 
available,  are  usually  cheaper  than  stone  or  brick.  Stone  is 
more  durable  than  brick,  and,  as  it  is  usually  laid  into  a 
heavier  wall,  it  is  somewhat  more  desirable,  but  the  advan- 
tages of  stone  are  so  slight  that  where  brick  is  cheaper  it 
should  be  used  instead,  provided  a  good  quality  can  be 
obtained  and  there  is  no  discord  produced  in  the  architectural 
effect  of  the  barn.  "Well-burned,  hard,  non-pervious  bricks 
are  the  best  to  use,  and  if  they  are  laid  up  into  a  hollow 
wall  they  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  building  warmer  than 
would  be  the  case  with  a  solid  stone  foundation. 


fg  */0°- 


Surface 


(a) 


A  concrete  foundation  for  a  horse  barn  should  be  put 
down  to  solid  soil  or  rock,  and  below  the  frost  line.  The  width 
of  the  foundation  will  depend  on  the  weight  to  be  supported; 
widths  of  from  8  to  20  inches  are  commonly  used.  If  care  is 
exercised  in  digging  the  trench,  forms  for  filling  in  the  concrete 
are  not  necessary  below  the  surface,  except  where  the  trench 
has  to  be  dug  wider  than  is  required  for  the  wall  to  permit 
the  laying  of  a  drain  tile,  or  because  the  depth  of  the  trench 
is  so  great  that  more  room  than  the  width  of  the  trench  is 
needed  for  digging  it.  The  bottom  of  the  trench  should  be 
from  8  to  12  inches  wider  than  the  regular  thickness  of  the 
wall  to  allow  for  a  footing  of  the  wall  to  spread  the  weight  of 
the  barn  over  a  greater  area.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  21  (a). 
The  widened  portion  should  be  from  about  6  to  8  inches  in 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  27 

depth.  If  the  trench  is  to  be  excavated  on  a  hillside,  it  may 
be  more  convenient  to  dig  one  side  in  line  and  erect  a  wooden 
form  opposite  the  bank,  as  shown  in  (6),  which  gives  dimen- 
sions for  the  form  material  and  shows  at  a  the  place  for 
locating  a  tile  drain.  The  dimensions  for  the  form  material 
given  in  the  illustration  are  suitable  for  any  width  of  barn 
foundation.  Another  method  of  form  construction  for 
foundations  is  shown  in  (c).  In  this  method  the  trench  is 
dug  or  plowed  out  considerably  wider  than  the  wall  is  intended 
to  be;  then  the  form  a  for  the  widened  bearing  base  is  put  in 
place.  After  this  has  been  filled  with  concrete  and  the  latter 
thoroughly  tamped,  the  upper  form  b  is  put 
in  place,  the  two  halves  being  fastened  to- 
gether by  means  of  twisted  wires. 

Opinions  vary  concerning  the  proper 
strength  to  make  concrete  for  foundations, 
but  a  mixture  that  has  usually  given  satisfac- 
tion is  1  part  of  Portland  cement,  3  parts  of 
clean,    sharp    sand,   and   5  parts  of  crushed    °  0  .  °- 

stone.     Another  good   mixture  is   1   part  of  Fig.  22 

Portland  cement  and  6  parts  of  unscreened  gravel. 

Cement  block,  stone,  and  brick  foundations  should  be 
constructed  with  a  widened  bearing  base,  such  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  22.  This  base  should  be  of  about  the  dimensions 
given  for  concrete  bases,  depending  on  the  weight  to  be 
supported. 

WALLS    FOR    HORSE    BARNS 

19.  Wooden  Walls. — For  many  years  the  principal  mate- 
rial used  for  horse-barn  walls  has  been  wood  set  on  a  brick 
or  stone  foundation,  but  the  present  scarcity  and  high  price 
of  wood  in  most  localities  will  prevent  it  from  being  used  as 
much  in  the  future  as  in  the  past.  Where  wood  is  plentiful 
and  can  be  had  at  a  price  that  will  permit  of  its  use,  it  makes 
a  fairly  satisfactory  material;  however,  it  absorbs  water  and 
decays  rather  quickly,  harbors  vermin  and  parasites,  is  liable 
to  burn,  is  apt  to  shrink  and  warp,  and,  although  it  is  a  poor 
conductor  of  heat,  it  fails  to  keep  out  heat  in  summer  and 


28 


HORSE  BARXS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§  :;•> 


cold  in  winter  as  well  as  other  materials,  on  account  of  the 
joints,  or  cracks.  Wood  makes  a  comparatively  warm  build- 
ing, however,  if  the  walls  are  made  of  several  thicknesses, 
but,  on  account  of  its  absorbing  qualities,  it  is  not  as  well 
adapted,  from  a  sanitary  or  hygenic  standpoint,  as  a  non- 
absorbent  material  for  the  finishing  of  the  interior  and  stalls. 
When  wood  is  used  for  horse-barn  walls  in  exceptionally 
cold  climates,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  walls  double,  and 

to  provide  an  interlining  of 
heavy  building  paper,  in  order 
to  protect  the  interior  of  the 
barn  from  drafts.  Fig.  23 
shows  a  desirable  form  of  wall 
construction  for  such  cli- 
mates; a  is  drop  siding;  b, 
tongued-and-grooved  oak 
flooring;  and  c,  heavy  build- 
ing paper.  In  most  sections 
of  the  United  States  where 
horses  are  raised,  a  single 
wall  of  tongued-and-grooved 
lumber  or  barn  boards  with 
the  cracks  tightly  battened 
will  prove  satisfactory ;  but  as 
a  matter  of  protection  to  keep 
the  walls  from  being  kicked 
to  pieces,  there  should  be  a 
wainscoting  of  strong  lumber 
Fu;  23  around  the  inside  of  the  part 

in  which  the  horses  are  stabled.  This  construction  is  shown  in 
Fig.  24.  In  (a)  is  shown  a  wall  made  of  barn  boards  with  the 
cracks  battened  with  grooved  strips ;  in  (6)  is  shown  the  interior 
wainscoting,  which  should  be  not  less  than  5  feet  high.  For 
keeping  out  the  rain,  it  is  best  to  run  the  outside  boards  per- 
pendicularly, as  water  will  follow  down  a  crack  and  not  be 
so  likely  to  go  through.  Drop  siding  is  usually  put  on  hori- 
zontally ;  it  presents  a  better  appearance  than  vertical  siding, 
but  is  not  so  satisfactory  for  keeping  out  the  rain. 


s ;;.-) 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


29 


A  urn  her  form  of  wooden-wall  construction  that  makes  a 
warm  and  artistic  building  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  25.     In  this 


Fig.  24 

construction,  the  building  is  first  sided  with  ship-lap  lumber, 
which  is  covered  with  building  paper,  and  this,  in  turn,  with 
shingles.  If  the 
shingles  are  stained 
before  they  are  nailed 
on  they  will  last  lon- 
ger and  make  the 
building  more  attract- 
ive. 

20.     Stone   Walls. 

Stone  is  a  good  build- 
ing material  for  horse 
barns,  as  it  is  non- 
trbent  and  not 
inflammable.  In  lo- 
calities where  build- 
ing stone  is  plentiful, 
it  can  be  used  to 
advantage,  as  a  barn 

constructed  of  good  stone  has  greater  permanency  than  one 
of  either  wood  or  brick,  and  is,  when    good  cement  mortar 


30 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


is  used,  equal  to  concrete.  However,  stone  walls  have  the 
disadvantage  of  not  being  easily  altered  when  changes  in  the 
building  may  be  necessary. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country,  stone  suitable  for  building 
purposes  can  be  obtained  directly  from  the  land,  thus  making 
it  a  cheap  building  material.  If  the  available  stone  is  not 
suitable  for  laying  in  a  wall,  it  may  be  of  such  nature  that  it 
can  be  crushed  into  small  particles  of  from  1  inch  to  1|  inches 
in  diameter,  mixed  with  sand  and  a  good  grade  of  Portland 
cement,  and  thus  made  into  the  best  form  of  concrete.     A 

building  constructed  of  stone  is 
warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  sum- 
mer, but  unless  the  walls  are  laid 
up  double  and  with  an  air  space 
between  them,  they  are  likely  to  be 
damp  in  cold  weather,  due  to  a 
condensation  of  moisture  on  the 
inside,  although  this  trouble  is  not 
so  marked  when   the   building  is 


Fig   26 

kept  well  ventilated.  Fig.  26  shows  the  air  space  a  in  a  double 
'wall;  the  layers  b  are  binding  courses  to  give  strength  to  the 
wall. 

21.  Cement  Block  Walls. — Building  blocks  made -of  Port- 
land cement,  sand,  and  stone  screenings  are  sometimes  used 
as  a  wall  material  for  horse  barns.  A  common  type  of  hollow 
cement  block  that  is  suitable  for  this  purpose  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  27.  Such  blocks  are  made  in  various  sizes  and  designs. 
Like  concrete,  they  are  durable  provided  the  proportion  of 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


31 


cement  used  in  their  construction  was  sufficient  to  make 
them  compact  and  without  interstices  which  would  allow 
them  to  absorb  more  or  less  moisture .  Walls  of  cement  blocks 
are  useally  somewhat  more  expensive  than  those  of  hollow  or 
solid  concrete,  and  are,  therefore,  not  to  be  preferred. 

22.  Brick  Walls.— Brick  is  a  desirable  material  for  horse- 
barn  walls  in  localities  where  its  cost  is  not  excessive.  In 
many  sections,  the  initial  cost  of  a  brick  barn  is  but  slightly 
more  than  that  of  one  constructed  of  wood,  and  considering 
the  fact  that  brick  is  more  durable  than  wood  and  does  not 
need  to  be  painted,  the  advantage  is  often  in  favor  of  the 
former  material.  Brick  walls  to  be  satisfactory  should  be 
laid  up  with  an  air  space  of  about  2  inches  between  the  outer 
and  inner  walls. 

23.  Combined  Brick  and  Wooden  Walls.— Some  durable 
and  attractive  horse  barns  are  made  with  walls  of  combined 
brick  and '  wood. 
Where  these  mate- 
rials are  combined  in  a 
wall,  the  wall  consists 
of  a  wooden  frame- 
work lined  on  the 
inside  with  boards 
and  on  the  outside 
with  brick,  as  shown  Fig.  28 

m  Fig.  28.  This  form  of  construction  is  sometimes  designated 
as  brick  veneering.  If  2"  X  4"  studding  is  used,  there  will  be 
a  4-inch  air  space  between  the  brick  and  the  wood.  The  single 
course  of  brick  on  the  outside  takes  the  place  of  a  layer *of 
wood  and  saves  the  expense  of  painting,  and  will  not  decay. 
If  walls  of  a  greater  warmth  are  desired,  a  layer  of  building 
paper  can  be  placed  back  of  the  sheathing  on  the  inside  and 
the  outside  sheathed  with  matched  lumber  before  the  brick 
wall  is  laid  up. 

24.  Concrete  Walls.— Concrete  has  not  always  been 
looked  on  with  favor  as  a  suitable  building  material  for  horse 
barns,  because  it  absorbs  moisture,  thus  making  the  building 


32 


HORSE  BARXS  AXD  PADDOCKS 


5  35 


damp.  It  is  worse  than  either  brick  or  stone  in  this  respect, 
and  walls  of  this  material,  like  those  of  brick  or  stone,  should 
be  built  with  an  air  space.  This  can  be  done  satisfactorily 
in  several  ways,  as  described  later. 

The  usual  method  of  mixing  concrete  is  to  use  1  part  of 
Portland  cement,  2  parts  of  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  4  parts 
of  crushed  stone.  If  unscreened  gravel  is  employed  instead 
of  crushed  stone,  the  proportion  should  be  1  part  of  Portland 
cement  to  5  or  6  parts  of  gravel.  If  the  gravel  is  free  from 
any  mixture  of  sand,  then  sand  should  be  added.  Ordinarily, 
when  gravel  is  used,  a  little  more  cement  will  be  required 
than  for  crushed  stone,  as  gravel  does  not  have  sharp  pro- 
jections for  the  cement  to  adhere  to.     For  posts,  columns, 


Fig.  29 


and  other  structural  parts  subjected  to  high  stress  and  requir- 
ing an  exceptionally  strong  wall,  the  proportions  sometimes 
used  are  1  part  of  cement,  1$  parts  of  sand,  and  3  parts  of 
crushed  stone.  A  good  mixture  for  light  work,  such  as  for 
retaining  walls,  abutments,  piers,  etc.,  is  1  part  of  cement, 
1\  parts  of  sand,  and  5  parts  of  crushed  stone. 

25.  It  is  likely  that  a  wall  of  from  S  to  12  inches  in  thick- 
ness will  be  amply  heavy  for  most  horse  barns.  If  the  walls 
serve  simply  as  a  foundation  or  extend  only  to  the  second 
story,  a  well-built,  10-inch  wall  with  a  good  footing  should 
be  satisfactory.  If  the  wall  is  to  extend  the  entire  height  of 
the  building,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  make  the  wall 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND   PADDOCKS 


33 


a  little  heavier.  The  builder  will  necessarily  have  to  be  gov- 
erned largely  by  his  own  judgment  in  building  concrete  walls, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  give  specific  directions  for  such  work 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  materials  available  and  the  pur- 
pose the  walls  must  serve. 

A  method  of  constructing  a  solid  concrete  wall  so  as  to 
prevent  dampness  on  the  inside  is  to  embed  strips  on  the 
interior  surface  of  the  wall  as  it  is  built,  nail  metal  lath  to 
them,  and  plaster  a  thin  coat  of  cement  over  the  lath.  This 
construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  29,  in  which  a  is  a  section  of 
solid  concrete  wall;  b,  a  reinforcing  rod;  c,  a  wooden  strip; 
d,  an  air  space;  e,  metal  lath;  and  /,  the  finishing  coat  of 
cement.     It  is  advisable  to  fasten  the  wooden  strips,  which 


Fig.  30 


should  be  about  1  inch  in  thickness,  to  the  concrete  by  means 
of  bent  nails,  wire,  or  some  similar  device. 

26.  One  method  of  constructing  a  double  concrete  wall 
is  to  make  two  single  walls  connected  by  reinforced-concrete 
ties,  as  shown  in  Fig.  30.  In  the  illustration,  a  is  a  completed 
section  of  the  wall,  b  are  reinforcing  rods  running  in  horizontal 
and  vertical  directions,  and  c  is  the  box-shaped  core  for  making 
the  air  spaces.  The  air  space  may  be  made  from  o  to  10  inches 
wide,  depending  on  the  forms  used;  the  width  is  not  impor- 
tant except  for  convenience  in  making.  Each  half  of  the 
wall  should  be  from  3  to  4  inches  thick,  depending  on  the 
weight  to  be  placed  upon  it.     The  walls  should  have  heavy 


34 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


galvanized  wire  or  iron  rods  placed  horizontally  in  them 
every  foot  and  vertically  every  2  feet.  Wall  ties  should  be 
put  in  about  24  inches  apart,  and  a  new  course  inserted  every 
time  the  forms  are  raised,  so  that  the  ties  will  be  solid  and 
continuous  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  wall.  It  is  not 
advisable  to  build  collapsible  forms  more  than  36  inches  high, 
because  they  would  be  too  heavy  to  handle ;  a  24-inch  or  30- 
inch  form  is  preferable.  The  forms  should  either  be  made  of 
green  lumber  or  be  thoroughly  saturated  with  water  before 
they  are  used,  otherwise  they  may  swell  and  injure  the  work, 
and  will  be  hard  to  remove.  The  wall  foundation  should 
have  a  footing.  All  corners  should  be  built  with  a  solid  wall 
and  when  the  hollow  wall  has  reached  within  6  inches  of  the 


Fig.  31 


top  it  should  be  bridged  over  with  sheet  iron,  brick,  or  some- 
thing imperishable,  and  the  top  made  solid.  In  filling  the 
forms,  the  concrete  should  be  made  wet  so  that  it  can  be 
slushed  in  and  all  space  filled  without  tamping;  if  made  some- 
what dry,  it  should  be  rammed  down.  The  concrete  mixture 
should  be  rich  enough  in  cement  to  fill  all  interstices  so  as  to 
make  it  strong  and  impervious  to  moisture.  When  the  con- 
crete has  set  and  the  forms  are  removed,  the  outside  of  the 
wall  should  be  plastered  with  a  mixture  of  1  part  of  cement 
and  2  parts  of  sand  to  close  all  open  spaces  and  keep  out 
moisture,  which,  if  allowed  to  enter  and  freeze,  will  cause 
the   walls   to   disintegrate   and   crumble.     In   removing   the 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  35 

forms,  the  inside  sections  should  be  taken  out  first,  but  not 
until  the  cement  is  well  set.  Door  and  window  casings 
should  be  made  before  the  work  is  started  and  then  set  as 
the  wall  is  being  built. 

27.  Instead  of  using  reinforced-concrete  ties,  it  is  possible 
to  use  metal  ties  of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  31  (a).  These 
metal  ties  are  embedded  in  the  concrete  before  it  hardens. 
They  should  be  placed  not  more  than  2  feet  apart  horizontally; 
they  are  sometimes  placed  closer  than  this  to  add  strength 
to  the  wall.  Strap  iron  about  1  inch  wide,  or  even  heavy 
wire,  can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  When  metal  ties  are  used, 
the  forms  can  be  constructed  as  shown  in  (b).  The  outer 
forms  a  and  the  inner  forms  b  are  made  of  1$"X8"  planks 
fastened  together  with  cleats.  The  outer  forms  are  held  in 
place  by  stays  c  made  of  2"  X  4"  scantlings  and  braced  by  iron 
rods  d,  which  can  be  tightened  or  loosened  by  means  of  nuts. 
The  inner  forms  are  held  in  place  by  wedges  e  made  of 
2"X4"  strips  and  stays  /  made  of  1-inch  material.  The 
wedges  are  beveled  on  one  edge  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
knocked  out  when  it  is  desired  to  remove  the  forms.  A 
notch  g  is  cut  in  each  section  of  the  inner  form  so  that  the  form 
will  rest  on  the  metal  tie  of  the  preceding  course.  A  finished 
section  of  wall  is  shown  at  h,  and  vertical  and  horizontal 
reinforcing  rods  are  shown  at  i. 

28.  Stucco  Walls. — Satisfactory  walls  for  a  horse  barn 
can  be  made  by  using  wood  for  the  structural  work  of  the 
walls  and  covering  the  exterior  with  concrete.  This  process 
is  known  as  stucco  veneering  and  the  walls  are  called  stucco 
walls.  Such  walls  are  durable,  artistic,  and  impervious  to 
the  weather.  The  method  of  making  stucco  walls  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  32.  The  studding  of  the  walls  is  first  covered 
with  two  thicknesses  of  roofing  paper;  furring  strips  are  then 
nailed  on  over  the  roofing  paper  about  1  foot  apart  and  to 
these  are  nailed  metal  lath  a,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  stucco  is  usually  put  on  in  two  coats.  The  first  coat  b 
is  known  as  the  scratch  coat  and  should  be  pressed  partly 
through   the  openings  in  the  lath.     The  surface  should  be 


>?%• 


Fig.  32 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  37 

roughened  with  a  stick  or  trowel  and  allowed  to  set  before 
the  second  coat  is  applied.  The  latter  should  be  put  on  from 
£  to  1  inch  thick.  For  the  second  coat  there  are  three  finishes 
that  can  be  used:  the  smooth  finish  c,  the  spatter-dash  finish  d, 
and  the  pebble-dash  finish  e.  For  producing  the  smooth 
finish,  a  wooden  float  is  used.  The  spatter-dash  and  pebble- 
dash  finishes  give  a  rough  effect  that  is  usually  considered 
more  artistic  than  that  obtained  in  the  smooth  finish.  The 
spatter-dash  finish  is  produced  by  throwing  the  last  coat  on 
with  a  stiff-fiber  brush.  The  cement  for  this  finish  is  mixed 
by  using  1  part  of  Portland  cement  to  3  parts  of  coarse  sand. 
The  cement  used  for  the  pebble-dash  finish  is  mixed  in  the 
same  way  with  the  exception  that  only  half  as  much  sand  is 
used,  pebbles  not  less  than  J  inch  in  diameter  being  sub- 
stituted for  the  part  of  sand  not  used.  This  cement  is  put  on 
with  a  trowel,  the  rough  effect  being  obtained  by  the  pebbles. 
Because  of  the  appearance  of  stucco  work  it  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  finishing  of  brick  and  stone  buildings.  The 
cement  mortar  adheres  directly  to  the  walls  of  the  building 
without  the  aid  of  metal  lathing,  if  the  walls  are  first  cleaned 
and  thoroughly  dampened.  Stucco  may  be  colored  by  the 
addition  of  dry  mineral  colors  such  as  lampblack,  Prussian 
blue,  ultramarine  blue,  yellow  ocher,  burnt  umber,  Venetian 
red,  Chattanooga  iron  ore,  and  red  iron  ore,  so  as  to  produce 
almost  any  shade. 

ROOFS  FOR  HORSE  BARNS 

29.  Wooden-Shingle  Roofs. — Wooden  shingles  are  by  far 
the  most  common  roofing  material  used  for  horse  barns. 
A  good  quality  of  cedar  shingles,  if  well  nailed  on,  will  ordi- 
narily last  on  a  roof  from  15  to  20  years,  although  some  have 
lasted  mtieh  longer;  the  steeper  the  roof,  the  longer  the 
shingles  will  last.  The  life  of  shingles  can  be  greatly  length- 
ened by  dipping  them  into  boiling  linseed  oil  before  they  are 
laid  and  securely  nailing  them  with  galvanized  or  cut  nails 
that  have  sufficient  body  not  to  rust  off  within  a  few  years 
and  allow  the  shingles  to  become  loose.  When  shingles  are  to 
be  dipped,  they  should  be  taken  out  of  the  pack  and  dipped 

243—24 


38  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  §  35 

separately  or  in  handfuls;  dipping  them  in  the  pack  as 
they  come  from  the  mill  is  not  advisable.  A  quantity  of  dry 
powder  color  added  to  the  oil  to  stain  the  shingles,  will  add 
to  the  appearance  of  the  roof.  It  is  said  that  a  cedar-shingle 
roof  treated  with  linseed  oil  will  last  for  40  years  or  more. 
Painting  a  roof  after  it  is  laid  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
as  the  paint  cannot  be  applied  under  the  lap  where  it  is  needed 
the  most. 

30.  Slate-Shingle  Roofs. — Slate  is  one  of  the  most  durable 
roofing  materials  that  can  be  used  for  horse  barns,  but  there 
are  two  objections  to  it,  namely,  the  initial  cost  of  the  slate 
shingles  and  the  large  quantity  of  material  required  in  the 
framework  of  the  roof  to  support  their  excessive  weight. 
Slate  shingles  laid  with  a  single  lap  are  coming  into  favor  for 
barn  roofs  because  they  eliminate,  in  a  measure,  these  objec- 
tions, but.  single-lap  roofs  are  not  so  effective  as  double-lap 
roofs  in  keeping  out  rains.  An  important  advantage  of  slate 
as  a  roofing  material  that  should  not  be  overlooked  is  the  fact 
that  buildings  covered  with  this  material  are  less  liable  to  be 
set  on  fire  by  sparks  from  engines  or  other  sources  than  those 
covered  with"  wooden  shingles. 

31.  Tile-Shingle  Roofs. — Tile  shingles,  like  slate  shingles, 
are  durable,  fireproof,  heavy,  and  require  strong  timbers  in 
the  roof  structure  to  support  them.  They  are,  however, 
artistic  and  especially  suitable  for  brick,  stone,  and  concrete 
buildings.     The  principal  objection  to  their  use  is  their  cost. 

32.  Galvanized-Iron  Roofs. — Galvanized  iron,  if  kept 
painted,  is  a  satisfactory  roofing  material  for  horse  barns 
and  lasts  almost  indefinitely,  but  if  the  painting  is  neglected 
the  iron  rusts  out  in  from  about  5  to  8  years.  Galvanized- 
iron  roofing  can  be  purchased  in  either  flat  or  corrugated 
sheets,  either  of  which  are  satisfactory  if  kept  properly 
painted.  This  material  has  the  merit  of  being  easy  to  put  on 
and  of  not  requiring  a  heavy  framework  for  its  support. 
Also,  it  is  fireproof  from  the  exterior.  Its  greatest  disad- 
vantage lies  in  the  fact  that  it  becomes  intensely  hot  under 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  39 

the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  thus  heating  the  interior  of  the  barn 
to  a  disagreeably  high  temperature  in  summer. 

33.  Specially  Prepared  Paper  Roofs. — Specially  prepared 
paper,  which  is  made  of  building  paper  treated  with  some 
material  such  as  creosote  to  make  it  durable  and  impervious 
to  rain,  is  extensively  used  for  covering  horse  barns.  In 
order  to  make  specially  prepared  paper  roofing  last  well,  it 
should  be  laid  on  a  smooth  surface,  as  any  irregularity 
between  the  sheathing  boards  will  cause  the  paper  to  break. 
The  sheathing  boards  holding  the  paper  should  be  well  sup- 
ported by  rafters  and  studding  so  that  there  will  be  but  little 
spring  and  variation  between  them;  otherwise,  in  putting 
on  the  paper,  it  will  be  broken  by  one  part  springing  down 
below  another.  The  strips  of  specially  prepared  paper  roofing 
must  be  nailed  down  with  small  nails  and  caps,  and  the  capped 
edges  cemented  together,-  in  order  to  prevent  the  wind  from 
entering  between  the  edges  and  tearing  the  paper  off.  When 
specially  prepared  paper  roofing  is  properly  laid,  it  will  last 
from  about  5  to  12  years,  depending  on  the  quality  of  the 
paper  used. 

34.  Tar-Coated  Building-Paper  Roofs.  Building  paper 
coated  with  tar  is  frequently  used  as  a  roofing  material  for 
horse  barns  where  comparatively  little  pitch  can  be  given  to 
the  roof.  The  sheathing  is  covered  with  heavy  building 
paper,  a  coat  of  coal  tar  is  applied,  a  layer  of  fine  gravel  is 
put  on  over  the  tar,  and  then  an  additional  layer  of  tar  and 
of  gravel  is  laid  on  top  of  these  coats.  This  makes  a  satis- 
factory roof,  if  properly  laid,  and  by  repairing  it  every  4  or 
5  years  with  a  new  coat  of  tar  and  gravel,  it  will  last  almost 
indefinitely.  A  roof  made  of  this  material  is  fireproof  from 
the  exterior. 

FLOORS    FOR    HORSE    BARNS 

35.  It  is  likely  that  different  flooring  materials  will  be 
used  in  different  parts  of  a  horse  barn.  For  instance,  it  may 
be  that  a  wooden  floor  will  be  the  most  satisfactory  in  the 
feed  alley  and  a  cement  floor  the  most  desirable  in  the  stalls, 


40  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  §  35 

or  vice  versa.  The  relative  merits  of  the  different  flooring 
materials  are  discussed  here  wkh  especial  reference  to  their 
use  for  stalls,  and  it  is  recommended  that  the  person  con- 
structing the  barn  use  his  own  judgment  in  selecting  materials 
for  the  other  parts  of  the  barn,  if  it  is  desired  to  use  in  such 
parts  a  different  material  from  that  used  in  the  stalls. 

36.  Clay  Floors. — Clay,  if  well  underdrained  and  properly 
cared  for,  is  fairly  satisfactory  for  a  stall  floor  and  has  the 
advantage  of  being  cheap.  Being  slightly  spring}',  clay  is 
easy  on  a  horse's  feet  and  is  not  slippery  or  destructive  to 
bedding,  although,  in  order  to  make  it  an  efficient  floor,  a 
large  quantity  of  bedding  may  be  used  in  order  to  absorb 
the  liquid  manure.  Clay  floors  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  aired  each  day  to  keep  them  in  a  sanitary  condition. 
They  must  also  be  repaired  frequently  with  new  clay  to  keep 
them  level.  Clay  floors  are  more  satisfactory  for.  use  in  a 
box  stall  where  the  animal  has  plenty  of  room  than  in  a  single 
stall  where  a  hole  soon  becomes  worn,  due  to  the  constant 
tramping  in  one  place.  Thus,  because  clay  floors  require 
constant  cleaning  and  repairing,  and  are  not  wholly  sanitary, 
they  cannot  be  unreservedly  recommended. 

37.  Sand  Floors. — Sand,  being  soft,  is  extremely  easy  on 
a  horse's  feet  and  allows  them  to  sink  in  until  the  weight  of 
the  animal  rests  partly  on  the  soles  and  frogs,  an  advantage 
not  possessed  by  any  other  kind  of  floor.  Because  of  this 
fact,  sand  floors  are  especially  well  adapted  for  horses  that 
work  on  pavements  and  hard  streets,  because  such  horses 
must  always  be  kept  shod  with  calked  shoes,  which  prevent 
the  frogs  and  soles  of  their  feet  from  coming  into  contact  with 
the  ground  and  sustaining  a  part  of  the  weight.  Dry  sand 
serves  also  as  a  bedding  material,  and  when  it  is  used  but 
little  other  bedding  is  needed,  although  care  must  be  exercised 
to  keep  the  stable  clean.  The  old  sand  should  be  replaced 
with  a  fresh  supply  occasionally  for  sanitation.  For  farm 
horses,  brood  mares,  and  colts,  sand  floors  are  not  as  desirable 
as  those  made  from  more  solid  materials. 


§35  HORSK   BARN'S  AND  PADDOCKS  41 

38.  Wooden  Floors. — Wood  has  been  extensively  used 
for  many  years  as  a  flooring  material  for  horse  stalls.  Because 
it  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  it  affords  a  far  more  comfortable 
surface  for  animals  to  lie  on  than  brick,  stone,  or  cement, 
particularly  where  little  or  no  bedding  is  used.  Also,  the 
bedding  is  not  broken  up  so  badly  on  wooden  flooring  as  it  is 
on  brick,  stone,  or  cement,  due  to  the  greater  softness  and 
resiliency  of  the  former. 

When  wood  is  used  for  stall  floors  it  is  generally  laid  in  the 
form  of  a  platform  of  single  thickness  on  stringers  close  to 
the  ground  or  on  floor  joists  some  distance  above  the  ground. 
Board  floors  are  rarely  given  any  preparation  before  or  after 
being  laid;  consequently,  being  porous  and  more  or  less  open 
at  the  cracks,  they  are  not  sanitary  and  soon  decay  or  are 
worn  out  by  the  tramping  of  horses  and  the  use  of  tools  in 
cleaning  the  stalls.  A  comparatively  good  floor  can  be  made, 
however,  by  using  good  tongued-and-grooved  oak  plank 
flooring,  filling  the  joints  with  coal  tar,  and  then  laying  a 
second  floor  on  top  of  the  first,  with  the  joints  treated  in  the 
same  way  but  lapping  those  in  the  first  floor.  If  well-seasoned 
lumber  is  used,  such  a  floor  should  last  for  10  years,  provided 
the  air  can  circulate  underneath  to  prevent  decay. 

In  some  sections,  short,  round  wooden  blocks  are  often 
used  as  a  flooring  material  for  horse  stalls.  The  blocks  are 
sawed  into  uniform  lengths  and  are  set  on  end,  the  interstices 
being  filled  with  concrete.  The  blocks  should  be  thoroughly 
seasoned  and  then  treated  with  cresote  before  they  are  laid; 
after  they  are  laid  a  brushing  of  coal  tar  should  be  given 
to  them  before  the  concrete  is  filled  in.  Wooden  blocks  are 
not  so  hard  and  slippery  as  brick  or  concrete,  and  are  com- 
paratively noiseless  and  impervious  to  moisture  when  put 
down  properly,  but  they  do  not  last  well  under  horses  that  are 
kept  sharply  shod. 

39.  Concrete  Floors. — Concrete  is  one  of  the  most  desir- 
able flooring  materials  for  horse  stalls.  It  is  somewhat 
objectionable  on  account  of  being  slippery,  cold  for  the 
animals  to  lie  on,  and  in  affording  little  rest  for  their  feet; 


J 


42  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  §  35 

but  its  advantages,  from  the  standpoint  of  sanitation,  are  so 
great  that  many  farmers  and  horsemen  prefer  it  to  all  other 
materials.  When  concrete  floors  are  used,  plenty  of  bedding 
should  be  kept  under  the  horses  to  prevent  them  from  break- 
ing their  front  hoofs  in  stamping.  Unless  covered  with 
wood,  concrete  is  not  well  adapted  for  use  in  a  livery  barn 
where  horses  must  be  kept  shod  with  sharp-calked  shoes  in 
winter. 

In  constructing  a  concrete  floor  for  horse  stalls,  it  is  advi- 
sable to  put  in  a  good  foundation.  An  excavation  of  about 
24  inches  should  first  be  made,  and  this  should  then  be  filled 
with  about  18  inches  of  cinders  or  small  stones.     It  is  possible 

to  leave  out  a  part  or  all 
of  the  cinders  or  stones  if 
these  materials  are  not 
readily  available,  but  the 
floor  will  be  much  more 
substantial  if  they  are 
used.  On  top  of  the 
cinders  a  layer  of  concrete 
about  5  inches  thick 
should  be  laid.  A  safe 
strength  of  concrete  to  use 
for  this  purpose  is  1  part 
of  Portland  cement,  2  parts  of  sand,  and  4  parts  of  crushed 
stone,  or,  if  the  latter  is  not  available,  an  equal  quantity  of 
fairly  coarse  gravel.  The  finishing  coat,  which  should  be 
about  1  inch  thick,  should  then  be  put  on.  For  this  coat.it 
is  advisable  to  use  concrete  made  of  about  1  part  of  Portland 
cement,  1  part  of  sand,  and  1^  parts  of  crushed  stone.  This 
method  of  construction  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  33;  a  is  the 
foundation  of  cinders;  b,  the  first  layer  of  concrete;  and  c,  the 
second  layer.  The  concrete  should  be  rammed  down  to 
proper  grade,  which,  for  single  tie  stalls,  is  an  inclination 
to  the  rear  of  about  1J  inches  in  9  feet.  By  allowing  the 
crushed  stone  to  come  to  the  surface  the  floor  is  prevented 
from  wearing  smooth  and  slippery,  and  is  better  than  a  sand 
finish,  with  the  surface  roughened. 


Fig.  33 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  43 

If  desired,  a  gutter  can  be  constructed  in  the  concrete  at 
the  rear  of  the  stall,  but  if  this  is  done  the  gutter  should  be 
covered  with  either  perforated  metal  or  wood.  Because  of 
it  being  a  non-absorbent,  the  former  is  better  than  the 
latter,  although  it  is  somewhat  more  expensive.  The  passage- 
way at  the  rear  of  the  stall  may  be  laid  with  either  concrete 
or  bricks;  the  latter  are  preferable  because  they  are  less 
slippery,  although  the  former  is  satisfactory  if  the  surface 
coat  is  made  of  fairly  coarse  crushed  stone. 

If  it  is  desired,  the  concrete  can  be  covered  with  wood  in 
order  to  gain  some  of  the  advantages  of  both  kinds  of  floors 
and  to  avoid  some  of  their  disadvantages.  When  this  is  done, 
the  wooden  portion  should  be  made  in  the  form  of  a  slat 
grate  such  as  that  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  34.  The 
spaces  between  the  planks, 
which  should  be  of  hard- 
wood, preferably  oak,  and 
about  2  in.  X  8  in.  in  di-  Fig.  34 

mension,  are  about  h  inch  wide.  The  planks  arc  bolted  to- 
gether at  each  end  by  means  of  a  long  bolt  that  passes 
through  each  plank,  and  are  held  apart  by  metallic  washers. 
A  grate  of  this  kind  can  be  easily  removed  and  the  stall 
flushed  out  with  water. 

40.  Asphalt  Floors. — Asphalt  laid  on  a  concrete  base  is 
more  springy,  and  hence  is  not  so  hard  on  the  feet  of  horses 
or  so  wearing  on  shoes  as  concrete.  However,  it  cannot  be 
recommended  for  a  stall  floor,  because  it  is  slippery  when  wet 
and  not  very  durable  under  the  tramping  of  newly  sharpened 
shoes. 

41.  Brick  Floors. — Brick  floors,  if  made  properly,  are 
fairly  satisfactory  for  horse  stalls,  but  they  are  not  very  easy 
to  clean.  Only  the  best  quality  of  paving  bricks  should  be 
used  for  stall  floors,  as  common  soft  bricks  are  too  absorbent, 
chip  readily,  and  wear  away  unevenly.  In  order  to  make 
a  brick  floor  impervious  to  moisture,  the  interstices  should 
be  filled  with  either  asphalt  or  dry  sand  and  cement;  the 


11  HORSE  BARXS  AND   PADDOCKS  §35 

latter  mixture,  when  moistened,  will  set  and  form  a  fairly 
durable  floor  and  one  that  is  not  absorbent.  If  the  bricks 
are  to  be  subjected  to  heavy  loads,  they  should  be  laid  on  a 
concrete  foundation;  at  other  places,  a  6-inch  layer  of  gravel 
or  crushed  rock,  if  well  rammed  down  and  covered  with  a 
£-inch  layer  of  sand,  will  do. 

42.  Stone  Floors. — Stone  blocks  are  sometimes  used  as 
a  flooring  material  for  stalls  and  are  fairly  satisfactory,  but 
floors  made  of  such  are  not  as  smooth  and  hence  not  as 
sanitary  as  concrete  floors.  If  stone  blocks  are  used  for  stall 
floors,  they  should  be  laid  on  a  concrete  bed,  or  on  6  inches 
of  gravel  or  cinders  rammed  down  and  covered  with  \  inch 
of  sand.  Some  kinds  of  stone  blocks  are  very  slippery  unless 
the  cracks  are  left  open  to  catch  the  calks  of  the  horses' 
shoes.  Because  of  their  unevenness,  stone-block  floors  are 
usually  not  to  be  preferred  to  concrete  floors. 


LIGHTING    AND    VENTILATING     OF    HORSE     BARNS 

43.  Windows  for  Horse  Barns. — Because  sunlight  has  a 
good  effect  on  horses  and  is  also  a  powerful  disinfectant,  the 
horse  barn  should  be  provided  with  a  sufficient  number  of 
windows  to  keep  the  interior  bright  and  sunn}'.  Windows 
in  the  south  side  of  a  barn  will,  of  course,  furnish  more  sun- 
light than  those  in  any  other  side,  but  each  side  should  have 
its  complement  of  windows.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  high  windows  admit  much  more  light  than  low  ones, 
as  more  light  comes  from  high  above  the  horizon  than  lower 
down.  Buildings  that  have  thick  walls  should  have  larger 
windows  than  those  having  thin  walls,  because  in  the  case  of 
the  former  a  part  of  the  light  coming  from  above  is  excluded 
by  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  This  same  principle  may  be 
observed  when  a  projection,  such  as  an  awning,  is  placed 
above  a  window. 

Stalls  cannot  be  made  too  light,  but  the  direct  sunlight 
should  not  strike  the  eyes  of  a  horse,  as  it  is  likely  to  injure 
the  sight.     Horses  stabled  in  darkened  stalls  are  more  subject 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  45 

to  weak  eyes  than  those  kept  in  light  stalls.  Whitewash 
applied  to  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  a  stall  adds  greatly  to  the 
lightness  and  also  serves  as  a  disinfectant. 

Cloth-covered  windows,  which  are  sometimes  used  in  horse 
barns,  are  discussed  later,  as  they  are  used  largely  for 
ventilation. 

44.  Artificial  Light  for  Barns. — It  is  an  advantage  to 
have  the  horse  barn  lighted  by  means  of  artificial  light. 
Electric  light  is  the  best  for  this  purpose  and  is  often  used 
when  it  is  available.  Natural  and  acetylene  gas  are  also 
extensively  used  for  lighting  horse  barns.  The  person 
managing  the  barn  must,  of  course,  be  governed  by  local 
conditions  in  deciding  whether  an  artificial  lighting  system 
would  be  an  economical  investment,  and  if  so,  on  the  kind 
of  light  to  use. 

45.  Ventilation  for  Horse  Barns. — In  planning  a  horse 
barn,  one  of  the  first  considerations  should  be  its  ventilation. 
The  size  of  the  barn  should  be  determined  not  only  by  the 
actual  space  required  for  the  comfort  of  the  animals  but  also 
by  the  amount  of  air  space  needed  to  give  them  fresh  air  at 
all  times.  Of  course,  the  air  space  alone  is  practically  worth- 
less unless  there  is  some  means  of  bringing  fresh  air  to  it  and 
carrying  away  the  bad  air. 

In  designing  a  barn,  about  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  space 
per  animal  should  be  allowed.  As  a  rule,  with  a  good  system 
of  ventilation  and  in  a  barn  for  several  horses,  this  space  per 
horse  will  be  ample,  although  some  authorities  put  it  much 
higher.  When  the  building  is  small,  accommodating  only 
one  or  two  horses,  more  air  space  may  be  allowed,  but  in  no 
case  does  it  need  to  exceed  2,000  cubic  feet  per  animal,  even 
for  the  highest  class  of  race  horses  when  in  training.  In 
calculating  the  available  air  space  per  animal,  the  minimum 
cubic  air  content  of  the  barn  should  be  figured;  that  is,  the 
air  content  of  the  barn  when  it  is  filled  to  its  greatest  capacity 
with  hay  and  grain.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  take  into 
consideration  only  the  part  of  the  barn  in  which  the  animals 
are  stabled  and  the  feeding  alleys   arc  located.     After  the 


46 


HORSE  BARNS  AXD  PADDOCKS 


35 


cubic  content  of  air  has  been  figured  for  these  parts,  the 
sum  should  be  divided  by  the  number  of  animals  and  the 
result  will  be  the  available  air  space  for  each  animal. 

46.  There  are  two  general  methods  of  ventilation,  namely, 
forced  ventilation  and  natural  ventilation.  Forced  ventila- 
tion is  accomplished  by  forcing  a  current  of  fresh  air  in  the 
building  by  means  of  a  fan  or  other  device.  This  system  of 
ventilation  is  rarely  applied  to  barns,  being  almost  entirely 
confined  to  large  office  and  public  buildings  in  which  the  air 
is  first  heated  and  then  sent  through  air  ducts  to  the  various 
rooms.  Natural  ventilation  takes  place  with  or  without 
special  devices  and  is  based  on  the  fact  that  cold  air  is  heavier 
than  hot  air  and  has  a  tendency  to  replace  it. 

^.._  ,  ,i  Although     natural 

ventilation  takes 
place  without  the  as- 
sistance of  artificial 
agencies,  its  extent 
and  efficiency  can  be 
controlled  by  various 
devices.  The  most 
common  means  of 
regulating  ventilation 
is  by  doors  and  win- 
dows. Ventilation  of  this  kind  is  satisfactory  when  no  draft  is 
created  that  strikes  the  animals.  The  air  in  a  stable  can  readily 
be  changed  by  opening  windows  or  doors  on  opposite  sides  of  a 
building,  but  such  ventilation  usually  creates  drafts.  In  order 
to  avert  drafts  when  windows  or  doors  are  used  for  ventilation, 
the  intake  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  break  the  direct  force 
of  the  outside  air  and  diffuse  it  throughout  the  building. 
Among  the  means  devised  for  this  purpose,  that  shown  in 
Fig.  35  is  perhaps  the  simplest  and  cheapest.  In  (a)  is  shown 
a  door  bored  full  of  holes  at  the  bottom,  and  in  (b)  a  device 
nailed  to  the  inside  of  the  door.  This  device  is  made  by  nail- 
ing two  2"  X  -i"  strips  to  the  edges  of  the  door  at  the  bottom 
and  on  these  nailing  a  wide  board,  thus  forming  a  box  open 


Fig.  35 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


47 


at  the  top ;  the  incoming  current  of  air  strikes  the  board  form- 
ing the  side  of  the  box  and  is  deflected  upwards.  Such 
devices  are  not  wholly  satisfactory,  because  the  fresh  air  is 
not  admitted  at  a  point  high  enough  in  the  stable. 

A  more  satisfactory  method  of  ventilation  is  to  provide 
double-sash  windows  and  raise  the  lower  sash  a  few  inches 
so  that  a  board  can  be  inserted  under  the  sash  to  close  up  the 
opening;  this  allows  fresh  air  to  enter  between  the  sashes 


s 


^x 


-7 


Fig.  37 


and  the  air-current  is  turned  upwards.     This  arrangement  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  36. 

A  still  better  plan  is  to  use  a  single-sash  window  hinged 
at  the  bottom  so  that  it  may  be  allowed  to  drop  inwards  at 
the  top,  thus  directing  the  current  of  air  upwards.  This 
method  of  ventilation  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  37.  Such  an 
arrangement  admits  the  air  near  the  ceiling,  where  it  should 
be  admitted,  breaks  the  force  of  a  direct  current,  and  excludes 
rain. 


48 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


47.  Cloth-covered  windows  are  satisfactory  air  intakes, 
the  cloth  breaking  the  direct  inward  current  of  cold  air  and 
allowing  diffusion  to  take  place  rapidly.  When  ventilation 
is  dependent  on  cloth-covered  windows,  the  windows  should 
not  be  too  large  but  should  be  numerous  on  all  sides  of  the 
building.  Cloth-covered  windows,  however,  will  likely  lower 
the  temperature  of  the  barn  more  than  any  other  system  of 
ventilation.  Fine-mesh  screen  wire  windows,  also,  will  break 
the  force  of  direct  drafts  but  are  not  as  good  in  this  respect  as 
cloth-covered  windows,  and  cannot  be  as  well  recommended. 


48.     One    of     the 
best  systems  of  venti- 
lation, known  as  the 
King  system,  admits 
the  air  by  means    of 
an    air-shaft  con- 
structed in  the   wall 
of    the    building    so 
is    that  cold  air  is  taken 
l|^  in  near  the  ceiling  and 
§  the  contaminated  air 
is  taken  out  near  the 
floor.    The  impure  air 
laden  with  carbonic- 


Fig.  38 


acid  gas,  being  warm  when  given  off,  tends  to  rise  to  the  ceiling. 
The  current  of  the  fresh  air  tends  to  cool  and  drive  the  warm, 
impure  air  downwards,  thus  creating  a  current  toward  the 
exit  ventilator  through  which  the  impure  air  passes  and  is 
carried  out  by  means  of  an  air-shaft,  which  should  have  its 
opening  in  a  cupola.  Also,  as  the  impure  air  rises  to  the  ceil- 
ing it  becomes  cooled  and  the  carbonic-acid  gas,  being  heavier 
than  air,  settles  near  the  floor  and  is  carried  out  by  a  current 
of  air.  The  exit  courses  of  the  impure  air  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  38  (a).  The  lower  right-hand  exit  is  the  one  commonly 
used,  the  upper  left-hand  ventilator  exit  being  kept  closed 
except  when  it  is  desired  to  lower  the  temperature  in  the 
building.     In  (6)  is  illustrated  the  intake  of  the  King  system. 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


49 


49.  In  Fig.  39  is  illustrated  another  system  of  ventilation 
that  is  sometimes  used  for  horse  barns.  In  this  system, 
there  is  an  air  duct  with  a  fresh-air  inlet  some  distance  from 
the  building.  A  hood  with  a  vane  attached  so  that  the 
hood  opening  is  always  facing  the  wind  is  erected  at  the  outer 
end  of  the  air  duct,  which  should  be  some  distance  away  from 
the  barn  and  preferably  on  a  hilltop.  The  other  end  of  the 
air  duct  is  usually  located  under  the  mangers  and  is  provided 
with  adjustable  openings  to  regulate  the  intake.     It  is  claimed 


Fig.  39 

for  this  system,  which  is,  in  a  measure,  forced  ventilation, 
that  the  fresh  air  is  admitted  at  the  head  of  each  animal, 
where  it  is  needed,  and  the  contaminated  air  is  driven  back 
to  other  parts  of  the  building  where  it  finds  its  escape;  thus, 
the  animals  always  have  fresh  air  to  breathe.  Although  this 
plan  at  first  thought  appears  to  be  a  good  one,  the  proper 
regulation  of  the  air  intakes  is  somewhat  difficult  and  requires 
close  attention  in  cold  weather.  In  addition,  the  cost  of 
installing  such  a  system  is  greater  than  for  the  King  system, 
which  is  much  better. 


EQUIPMENT    FOR    HANDLING    FEED    AND    MANURE    IN 
HORSE     BARNS 

50.  Equipment  for  Handling  Feed. — In  every  horse  barn 
where  it  is  possible,  there  should  be  a  number  of  bins  for  grain 
and  ample  storage  room  for  all  of  the  hay  needed  during  the 


50  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  §  35 

year.  As  dampness  in  hay  must  be  avoided,  it  should  be 
stored  in  a  dry  loft  rather  than  on  the  ground.  The  loft 
should  be  well  ventilated,  and,  if  it  is  located  over  the  stalls, 
should  be  tightly  floored  and  otherwise  kept  closed  from 
below  to  exclude  dust,  foul  odors,  and  damp,  warm  air,  all 
of  which  would  damage  the  hay.  If  corn  is  kept  in  the 
barn,  it  should  be  stored,  preferably  in  the  ear,  in  cribs  sided 
on  both  sides  with  slats  so  that  plenty  of  air  can  circulate 
through  the  corn.  The  floor  of  the  crib  should  be  at  least  a 
few  inches  from  the  ground  in  order  to  avoid  dampness. 
Oats,  like  corn,  should  not  be  stored  on  the  ground,  for  they 
are  even  more  likely  than  corn  to  become  musty  if  slightly 
damp.  If  not  thoroughly  dry  when  stored,  oats  should  be 
turned  occasionally  or  they  will  become  musty  and  unfit 
for  horse  feed,  even  when  stored  in  a  proper  place. 

The  best  location  for  the  grain  bins  depends  on  the  plan 
of  the  barn;  as  a  rule,  they  should  be  at  one  end  and  on  the 
second  floor,  with  spouts  leading  below  to  feed  boxes  in  a  feed- 
mixing  room.  If  the  number  of  horses  will  justify  the  expense, 
there  should  be  a  fanning  mill  for  the  cleaning  of  grain,  and 
an  oat  and  corn  crusher  for  preparing  the  grain  feed.  A 
small  pair  of  portable  scales  will  also  be  found  useful  about 
the  feed  room. 

51.  The  principal  kinds  of  feed  boxes  for  use  in  stalls 
are  those  made  of  wood  and  of  iron  or  steel.  Iron  feed 
troughs  have  the  merit  of  being  sanitary  and  durable,  but 
they  cost  more  than  wooden  boxes  and  become  so  cold  when 
the  temperature  is  below  freezing  that  the  lips  of  the  horses 
are  liable  to  become  sore.  Horses  frequently  waste  consider- 
able of  their  feed  by  rooting  it  out  when  fed  in  small  boxes, 
and,  as  most  of  the  iron  feed  boxes  are  small,  this  type  of 
box  is  not  economical.  Wooden  boxes  constructed  of  some 
hard  lumber,  such  as  oak,  are  usually  satisfactory.  They 
can  be  made  any  size  and  shape  to  suit  the  needs,  and  the 
edges  can  be  ironed  to  prevent  the  horses  from  chewing  them. 
Fig.  40  illustrates  a  convenient  wooden  swinging  feed  trough 
that  is  suitable  for  a  box  stall  and  especially  well  adapted 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


51 


for  the  feeding  of  stallions,  as  the  feeder  does  not  need  to 
enter  the  stall.  When  the  box  is  hung  in  place  and  is  ready 
to  receive  the  feed,  it  stands  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  When 
swung  around  so  the  horse  can  feed,  nothing  is  seen  from  the 
front  but  a  plain  wall.  When  not  in  use,  the  trough  should 
be  swung  out  of  the  stall  so  that  no  projections  will  be  left 
for  the  horse  to  rub  against. 

A  combined  feed  and  water  trough,  of  which  there  are 
several  on  the  market,  is  not  recommended,  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  patent  hoppers  that  are  operated  by  clock 


Fig.  40 

movement.  The  latter  may  be  set  as  an  alarm  clock  is  set, 
so  as  to  feed  all  the  horses  in  the  barn  at  a  given  hour,  and 
if  everything  works  properly  the  hopper  opens  and  the  feed 
drops  into  the  horses'  troughs;  however,  there  is  a  possibility 
that  some  horse  may  be  sick  and  hence  is  not  in  shape  to 
receive  its  regular  feed  of  grain.  Atitomatic  feeding  of  ani- 
mals is  impractical. 

If  a  barn  is  arranged  so  that  all  the  horses  can  be  fed  at 
one  trip  through  the  barn,  a  great  deal  of  labor  will  be  saved. 
Where  there  is  a  smooth  floor  in  the  feed  alley  a  feed  car  built 
of  galvanized  steel  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  means  of 


52 


HORSE  BARXS  AXD  PADDOCKS 


§35 


handling  grain.  In 
Fig.  41  is  illustrated 
a  low-wheeled  cart 
that  runs  easily  on  a 
smooth  floor.  The 
cart  has  several  com- 
partments for  differ- 
ent kinds  of  grain 
and  is  equipped  with 
a  pair  of  spring-bal- 
ance scales  by  which 
weights  may  be  taken 
occasionally  as  a 
Fig.  41  check  on  the  quantity 

fed.     A  quart  or   a  half-gallon   cup  that  holds    a  standard 
quantity  will  be  found  convenient  for  measuring  out  the  feed. 

52.  Hay  racks  may 
be  built  of  wood  or  iron 
and  located  to  suit  the 
desire  of  the  horseman. 
In  Fig.  42  is  shown  one 
form  of  a  corner  hay 
rack  that  is  commonly 
used;  it  is  somewhat 
objectionable  because  it 
cannot  be  easily  filled 
save  from  the  loft  above 
and  the  hay  often  lodges 
in  the  top  so  that  the 
horses  cannot  reach  it. 
A  form  of  collapsible 
iron  rack  that  is  used 
by    some    horsemen    is 

shown    in    Fig.    43.     A 

&  ,  Fig.  42 

metal  spnng  causes  the 

rack  to  close  up  as  the  hay  is  eaten  out,  so  that  the  hay  is 

always  within  reach  of  the  horse. 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


53 


For  all  purposes  and  conditions,  the  common  manger  and 
hay  chute  illustrated  in  Fig.  44  is  cheap,  convenient,  and 


Fig.  43 


practical.  When  such  a  device  is  used,  however,  there  should 
be  some  means  for  closing  the  chute  during  cold  weather,  in 
order  to  prevent  drafts.     Horsemen  who  have  used  such  a 


a 


! 


Fig.  44 


manger  and  chute  without  a  means  of  closing  the  chute, 
report  trouble  with  pneumonia  and  lung  fever  in  their  horses. 

243—23 


54  HORSE  BARNS  AXD  PADDOCKS  §  35 

When  horses  are  kept  in  box  stalls,  it  is  the  practice  of 
many  horsemen  to  feed  the  hay  by  simply  throwing  it  on 
the  ground  in  the  stall.  It  is  claimed  by  those  who  follow 
such  a  practice  that  there  is  less  wasted  than  when  it  is  placed 
in  mangers. 

Weighing  the  hay  for  each  feed  is  too  much  trouble  to  prove 
practical,  but  an  arrangement  whereby  an  occasional  weight 
may  be  taken  as  a  check  is  a  good  fthing.  A  sheet  about 
60  inches  square  with  an  eyelet  placed  in  each  corner  or  a 
200-pound  bran  bag  will  be  found 'convenient  for  holding  the 
hay  to  be  weighed.  A  little  experience  gained  through 
weighing  the  hay  will  enable  the  feeder  to  estimate  very 
closely  the  quantity  of  hay  each  hbrse  receives. 

53.  Equipment  for  Handling  Manure. — A  number  of 
litter  carriers  that  are  on  the  market  are  convenient  for 
removing  the  manure  from  horse  barns.  These  carriers  run 
on  steel  tracks  or  cables  that  extend  from  the  rear  of  the  stalls 
to  a  manure  pit  or  manure  wagon. 

Some  horse  barns  have  a  manure  pit  in  the  basement,  in 
which  case  the  horses  are  stabled  on  the  first  floor.  The 
pit  is  usually  large  enough  to  accommodate  a  wagon  or  a 
manure  spreader  so  that  the  manure  can  be  dumped  directly 
into  it  as  the  stalls  are  cleaned.  Sometimes  the  manure  is 
allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  pit  and  is  hauled  away  as  oppor- 
tunity permits.  Pits  are  not  very  desirable,  as  the  odor 
arising  from  decomposing  manure  is  offensive  and  unsanitary, 
and  where  the  pit  is  underground,  the  driveway  is  likely  to 
be  slippery  during  the  winter. 

Sometimes  a  gutter  is  constructed  in  the  back  of  the  stall 
to  catch  the  liquid  manure.  In  this  case  the  gutter  may  be 
kept  filled  with  some  absorbent  material  or  it  may  have  con- 
nections leading  to  a  cistern  or  to  the  manure  heap.  There 
is  considerable  disagreement  among  authorities  as  to  the 
most  economical  method  of  handling  liquid  manure,  con- 
sequently no  definite  instructions  can  be  given  relative  to 
this  point.  However,  in  the  case  of  a  concrete  floor  a  gutter 
is  practically  a  necessity  for  sanitary  reasons. 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  55 


HORSE   PADDOCKS 

54.  Size  and  Location  of  Horse  Paddocks. — The  term 
paddock,  as  used  by  horsemen,  designates  a  small  lot,  usually 
turfed,  that  adjoins  or  is  near  to  a  horse  barn.  Paddocks 
are  usually  used  chiefly  as  places  in  which  horses  can  get 
exercise,  and  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  eliminate  danger 
of  injury  when  several  animals  are  turned  into  them.  A 
small  paddock  is  desirable  for  a  horse  that  has  not  been  out 
of  the  barn  for  some  time,  as  he  will  not  be  so  likely  to  over- 
exert himself  in  running  and  playing  as  he  would  in  a  larger 
one.  A  paddock  for  the  special  use  of  a  stallion  should  be 
large  enough  to  provide  plenty  of  grass  for  pasture;  in  most 
localities,  two  acres  will  be  ample. 

The  size  and  number  of  the  paddocks  must,  of  course,  be 
determined  largely  by  the  area  of  the  land  available  for  this 
purpose  and  the  number  and  kind  of  horses  to  be  accom- 
modated. There  should  be  a  separate  paddock  for  brood 
mares  and  their  colts,  and  also  for  yearling  stallions  and 
fillies,  which  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  together.  It  is 
not  a  good  practice  to  allow  draft  colts  and  light  colts  to  run 
together,  as  light  colts  play  too  fast  for  draft  colts,  and  the 
latter,  in  their  endeavor  to  keep  up,  overexert  themselves, 
which  is  likely  to  result  in  unsound  legs. 

If  possible,  paddocks  should  be  located  where  there  is  good 
natural  drainage  so  that  they  may  be  used  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  If,  however,  they  are  poorly  located  with  regard 
to  drainage,  they  may  be  improved  by  tile  draining.  If  a 
paddock  is  to  be  used  merely  as  an  exercise  lot  and  the 
material  is  available,  the  surface  of  a  part  or  all  of  it  may  be 
covered  with  cinders,  gravel,  or  crushed  rock.  This  will  help 
to  keep  the  horses  out  of  the  mud  at  times  when  the  ground 
is  wet  and  soft,  and  will  probably  lesson  the  number  of  cases 
of  scratches,  a  disease  often  resulting  from  keeping  horses  in 
muddy  lots  or  stalls. 


56 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


§35 


55.  Fences  for  Horse  Paddocks. — When  possible,  per- 
manent fences  should  be  used  around  the  paddocks,  and  they 
should  be  built  high  enough  to  prevent  all  danger  of  horses 
trying  to  go  over  them.     Any  material  that  can  readily  be 


Fig.  45 


seen,  such  as  wood  or  concrete,  makes  a  better  fence  for  turn- 
ing horses  than  a  material  that  is  almost  invisible,  such  as 
wire.  The  only  justification  for  using  a  wire  fence  for  a 
horse  paddock  is  that  of  economy,  and  then,  as  a  rule,  only 


§  35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  57 

woven- wire  fences  should  be  used.  Many  accidents  happen 
to  horses  from  barbed- wire  fences  around  paddocks;  the 
annual  loss  of  animals  due  to  injury  from  this  source  is  large. 
If  woven-wire  fencing  is  used  around  the  paddocks,  both 
the  horizontal  and  the  vertical  strands  should  be  of  No.  9 
wire.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  fence  at  least  5£  feet  high 
and  preferably  G  feet;  then,  if  one  or  two  barbed  wires  are 
put  on  top  there  is  little  danger  of  the  horses  trying  to  go 
over  it,  provided  that  they  are  familiar  with  its  location  and 
that  the  fence  is  tightly  stretched.  Two  barbed  wires  can 
be  placed  to  good  advantage  on  a  level  on  opposite  sides  at 
the  tops  of  the  posts.  This  will  prevent  horses  from  bearing 
down  on  the  top  of  the  fence  and  pushing  out  the  staples. 
In  building  this  kind  of  a  fence,  there  should  be  posts  every 
10  or  12  feet,  and  they  should  extend  into  the  ground  about 
3k  feet.  The  corner  and  end  posts  should  be  set  at  least 
5  feet  deep  and  be  braced.  The  proper  method  of  setting 
these  posts  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  45.  In  (a)  is  shown  the  end 
posts  a,  a  bracing  post  b,  wooden  braces  c,  wire  braces  d, 
anchors  e,  and  an  iron  tie-rod  /.  In  (b)  is  shown  a  corner 
post  a,  bracing  posts  b,  wooden  braces  c,  wire  braces  d,  and 
anchors  e.  A  woven-wire  fence  with  the  posts  set  in  this 
way  will  be  firm  and  rigid  and  will  stand  up  better  and  last 
longer  than  a  fence  built  of  wood,  as  there  will  be  little  wind 
pressure  against  it.  As  a  protection  against  lightning  being 
carried  on  the  fence,  wires  having  a  contact  with  each  hori- 
zontal wire  in  the  fence  and  the  lower  end  buried  in  the 
ground  should  be  erected  every  6  rods.  When  good  material 
has  been  used,  the  durability  of  a  woven-wire  fence  is  largely 
determined  by  the  tension  of  the  wire  and  the  rigidity  of  the 
posts  to  which  it  is  tied.  The  stay  wires  should  be  as  heavy 
as  the  horizontal  strands;  otherwise,  they  will  soon  rust  out 
and  shorten  the  life  of  the  fence. 

56.  For  enclosing  small  paddocks,  where  the  fence  is 
subjected  to  considerable  strain  due  to  the  animals  crowding 
against  it,  wood  is  preferable  to  woven  wire,  because  of  its 
rigidity.     A  fence  built  with  the  boards  running  horizontally 


58 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


S  35 


requires  at  least  two  posts  to  the  rod,  and  three  posts  will 
make  it  stronger.     Fig.  46  shows  a  desirable  form  of  con- 


Fig.  46 


struction  for  wooden  fences,  and  gives  dimensions  for  the 
various  materials.  If  the  fence  is  subjected  to  hard  usage, 
the  boards  should  be  2  in.Xo  in.  instead  of  1  in.xG  in.  as 
given,  and  the  rail  should  be  2  in.  X  S  in.  instead  of  2  in.  X  6  in. 

Another  form  of  wooden  fence  is  shown  in  Fig.  47.  Fre- 
quently old  material  can  be  used  for  the  pickets  of  such  a 
fence. 

Concrete  is  sometimes  used  for  paddock  fences  when 
expense  is  of  no  consideration.  The  construction  of  concrete 
fences  for  horses,  however,  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage, 
hence  they  are  not  to  be  recommended  unless  the  horseman 
or  farmer  is  willing  to  experiment  until  the  proper  strength 
of  materials  has  been  determined. 


ft 


'S 


/  /I 


Fig.  47 


Temporary  and  portable  fences  for  paddocks  are  not  to  be 
unreservedly  recommended,  but  in  special  cases  it  may  be 


§35 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS 


59 


necessary  to  use  them.  A  portable  panel  fence  with  dimen- 
sions for  the  various  materials  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  48.  In  (a) 
is  shown  the  method  of  construction  and  the  dimensions  of 
the  materials  for  the  panel;  in  (b)  is  shown  the  construction 
and  dimensions  for  the  supporting  crotch ;  and  in  (c)  is  shown 
two  panels  and  a  crotch  in  place  as  a  fence.  The  crotch 
merely  sets  on  top  of  the  ground  and  the  panel  is  supported 
by  it.     The  sections  can  be  moved  from  place  to  place  at  will. 


K-           -    :    ''  :  ■" 

T  1 

1 

Fl 

$ 

S=r  "             L~     ? 

> 

1 

l 

X'*} 

7. 

>  m- 

II 

s| 

M 

U»^ 

•> 

1 

r 

F 1 

-/s-o 


Fig.  48 

57.  Water  Supply  for  Paddocks. — When  a  running  spring 
is  accessible,  there  is  no  better  source  of  water  supply  for  the 
horse  paddocks.  Spring  water  is  pure,  if  obtained  directly  as 
it  comes  from  the  ground,  and  is  always  cool  and  refreshing. 
However,  the  number  of  farms  where  springs  are  accessible 
is  very  limited  and  it  is  likely  that  a  creek  or  well  will  have 
to  be  used.  Creek  water  is  fairly  satisfactory,  but  there  is 
always  the  danger  of  disease  germs  being  carried  down  stream 
from  a  farm  lying  above.  Water  pumped  from  a  well  that 
is  known  to  be  pure,  and  piped  to  tanks  where  it  is  needed, 
is  by  far  the  most  common  source  of  water  for  horses.     Where 


60 


HORSE  BARXS  AXD  PADDOCKS 


§35 


this  system  is  used  care  should  be  given  the  place  where  the 
animals  drink  to  keep  it  from  becoming  muddy  or  slippery. 
All  tanks  should  be  fitted  with  a  waste  pipe  to  carry  off  the 
overflow. 

58.  Shade  for  Paddocks. — In  paddocks  in  which  horses  are 
kept  in  summer  there  should  be  ample  shade  under  which 
the  animals  may  gather  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  A  few 
trees  growing  in  the  paddock  will  supply  sufficient  shade  for 
several  animals;  however,  there  is  an  element  of  danger  in 
having  trees  in  a  horse  paddock,  as  limbs  and  tops  are  likely 
to  be  blown  off  during  storms  and  thus  injure  some  of  the 
horses.  There  is  danger,  also,  that  a  tree  may  be  a  conductor 
of  lightning. 


Fig.  49 

Where  there  are  no  trees  available  for  shade,  a  sunshade 
similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  40  should  be  erected.  This 
may  be  built  of  any  dimensions  desired. 

59.  Care  of  Paddocks. — The  paddocks  surrounding  a 
horse  barn  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  filth  by  occa- 
sionally raking  up  the  surface,  and  removing  the  coarser 
parts,  and  allowing  the  action  of  the  sun  to  disinfect  the 
surface  soil.  Frequent  cultivation  aids  in  renovating  a  soil, 
but,  as  a  rule,  it  cannot  be  recommended  for  lots  and  pad- 
docks on  account  of  the  undesirableness  of  a  loose  surface 
soil,  which,  on  a  hillside,  washes  more  or  less  into  gullies. 

If  horses  are  kept  too  long  on  one  pasture,  the  land  is 
likely  to  become  what  in  England  is  called  Jwrse  sick.     Just 


§35  HORSE  BARNS  AND  PADDOCKS  61 

what  this  is  no  one  seems  to  know,  but  horses  do  not  thrive 
on  grass  from  a  horse-sick  pasture,  even  when  there  is  an 
abundance  of  it.  This  condition  has  been  noticed  only  on 
small  pastures  that  have  been  grazed  heavily  for  a  number 
of  years,  and  does  not  seem  to  exist,  or  at  least  has  never 
been  observed,  in  pastures  of  large  area.  To  avoid  such 
conditions,  horses  should  be  put  on  fresh  soil  at  intervals  of 
a  few  years  and  another  class  of  livestock  grazed  for  a  year 
or  two  on  the  horse  pastures,  or  the  pastures  may  be  plowed 
up  and  cropped  for  a  year  or  two. 


TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET 
CLASSES  OF  HORSES 

(PART  1) 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Horses  are  classified,  in  a  general  way,  according  to 
type,  breed,  and  market  class.  The  term  type,  as  applied  to 
horses,  is  used  to  denote  a  group  of  animals  that  bear  close 
resemblance  in  their  natural  and  acquired  fitness  for  a  par- 
ticular purpose.  For  instance,  horses  of  the  French  Coach, 
German  Coach,  Hackney,  and  Cleveland  Bay  breeds  are 
similarly  adapted  for  the  drawing  of  light  vehicles  over  roads 
or  streets,  and  hence  are  classed  as  a  type — the  coach,  or 
carriage,  type.  Most  of  the  modern  breeds  of  horses  may  be 
classed  as  belonging  to  some  type;  however,  a  few  of  the 
breeds,  at  the  present  time,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  of  any 
particular  type.  For  example,  some  horses  of  the  Morgan 
breed  are  of  the  roadster  type,  some  are  of  the  carriage  type, 
and  some  are  of  the  saddle  type. 

By  the  term  breed  is  meant,  as  in  the  case  of  all  other 
classes  of  domestic  animals,  a  race,  or  strain,  the  members 
of  which  have  the  power  to  transmit  their  distinguishing 
characters  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  certainty.  The  breeds 
of  horses  have  such  distinctive  names  as  Hackney,  Percheron, 
Belgian,  Clydesdale,  etc.,  the  name  being  derived,  in  most 
instances,  from  the  country  or  province  in  which  the  breed 
was  originated. 

A  market  class  of  horses  is  a  group  of  animals  each  of  which 
meets  the  requirements  of  the  market  for  that  particular 

COPYRIGHTED   BY    INTERNATIONAL   TEXTBOOK   COMPANY.        ENTERED   AT   STATIONERS'    HALL,    LONDON 

§36 


Fig.  1 


§36 


MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


group.  The  market  classification  of  horses  is  based  on  the 
general  qualities  of  size,  conformation,  height,  weight,  style, 
and  action,  regardless  of  breed.  Because  of  conditions 
governing  supply  and  demand,  and  varying  opinions  among 
those  who  buy  and  sell  horses,  the  market  classifications 
must  necessarily  be  somewhat  flexible  and   the    limitations 

Names 


ES 

of  the  Exterior  Regions  of 

a  Horse  Shown  in  Fig.  1 

1,  Chin  groove 

30,  Floor  of  chest 

2 

Lips 

31,  Belly 

3 

Nostril 

82,  Ribs 

4 

Muzzle 

S3,  Flank 

5 

Face 

34,  Back 

6 

Nose 

35,  Loin 

7 

Eye 

86,  Hip 

8 

Forehead 

87,  Croup 

9 

Poll 

88,  Dock 

10 

Ear 

39,  Tail 

11 

Lower  jaw 

40,  Point  of  buttock 

12 

Angle  of  lower  jaw 

41,  Thigh 

13 

Throat  latch 

42,  Stifle 

14 

Neck 

43,  Quarters 

Id 

Crest 

44,  Gaskin 

16 

Juncture  of  neck  and  shoulder 

45,  Hock 

17 

Withers 

46,  Hind  cannon 

18 

Shoulder 

47,  Hind  fetlock 

19 

Arm 

4S,  Hind  pastern 

20 

Point  of  shoulder 

49,  Hind  coronet 

21 

Forearm 

50,  Hind  hoof 

88 

Elbow 

a,  Frog  of  foot 

88 

Knee 

b,  Cleft  of  frog 

H 

Front  cannon 

c,  Upper  heel 

u 

Front  fetlock 

d,  Lower  heel 

86 

Front  pastern 

e,  Bars  of  foot 

87 

Front  coronet 

/,  Outer  wall 

28 

Front  hoof 

g,  Sole 

89 

Chestnuts 

of  the  various  classes  somewhat  variable.  A  large  number 
of  horses  go  to  market  and  help  to  supply  the  demand 
that  are  not  altogether  typical  of  the  market  class  in  which 
they  are  sold,  but  such  animals  should  not  be  confused  with 
those  of  the  approved  type.  In  attempting  to  meet  the 
market  demands,  if  there  are  not  enough  horses  of  a  certain 


4  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §  36 

type,  dealers  attempt  to  supplement,  as  far  as  possible,  with 
animals  not  altogether  typical  of  the  class.  The  name  of 
the  market  class  into  which  a  group  of  horses  is  placed  is 
suggestive,  in  most  instances;  of  the  use  to  which  the  horses 
are  put.  For  example,  horses  that  meet  the  market  demands 
for  draft  purposes  are  placed  in  a  class  termed  the  draft  class. 
Likewise,  horses  that  meet  the  market  demands  for  light 
driving  on  the  road  are  grouped  in  a  class  known  as  the 
road  class. 

2.  In  order  to  obtain  a  clear  understanding  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  each  type,  breed,  and  market  class  of  horses, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  different  exterior 
regions  of  a  horse.  In  Fig.  1  (a)  is  shown  a  profile  view  of 
a  horse  with  the  exterior  regions  numbered;  in  (b),  a  front 
view  of  the  head ;  in  (c) ,  a  rear  view  of  the  animal ;  and  in  (d) , 
a  view  of  the  bottom  of  a  hoof.  The  names  of  the  numbered 
regions  are  given  on  the  page  opposite  the  illustration. 

The  common  unit  of  measurement  for  the  height  of  horses 
is  the  hand.  A  hand  is  4  inches,  or  the  supposed  width  of 
the  human  palm.  Thus,  if  a  horse  were  5  feet  4  inches  tall, 
its  height  would  be  expressed  as  16  hands;  if  it  were  5  feet 
6  inches  tall,  its  height  would  be  expressed  as  16+  hands. 
The  measurement  of  a  horse's  height  is  taken  from  the  ground 
to  the  top  of  the  shoulders. 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


TYPES   OF   HORSES 


PRIMITIVE   TYPES 

3.  The  Prehistoric  Horse. — The  evolution  of  the  horse 
from  an  extremely  low  form  of  animal  to  its  present  state  of 
general  excellence  has  been  traced  by  naturalists  by  means 
of  a  series  of  successive  modifications  in  fossils.  These  fos- 
sils have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  but  in 
greatest  numbers  and  most  complete  sequence  in  North  and 
South  America.  In  the  United  States,  they  have  been  found 
in  greatest  numbers  in  Utah,  Wyoming,  and  New  Mexico. 

The  earliest  form  of  the  primitive  horse  of  which  a  more  or 
less  complete  skeleton  has  been  found  was  a  small  animal  not 
more  than  a  foot  high  at  the  shoulders,  and  possessing  five 
digits  on  the  front  feet  and  four  on  the  hind  feet,  one  digit 
being  rudimentary  in  each  case.  This  animal  is  known  by 
naturalists  as  the  Eohippus,  or  dawn  horse.  Roughly  speak- 
ing, it  is  supposed  that  the  dawn  horse  existed  more  than 
three  million  years  ago.  Fossils  representing  later  ages 
show  a  gradual  increase  in  the  size  of  the  animals  and  a  change 
in  the  conformation  of  the  feet. 

4.  Norse  and  African  Types. — At  about  the  dawn  of 
civilization  there  were  two  recognized  types  of  horses,  the 
Norse  type,  or  the  Norseman's  horse,  of  Northern  Europe, 
and  the  African,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Oriental 
type.  Horses  of  the  Norse  type  possessed  heavy  coats  of 
hair,  heavy  manes  and  tails,  and  large  tufts  of  hair  on  the 
fetlocks.  They  had  coarse  heads  with  rounding,  obtuse 
noses,  and  very  little  speed  but  great  endurance.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  they  were,  as  a  rule,  dun  in  color  with  a  black 
median  stripe  down  their  backs.  Horses  of  the  African 
type,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  Arab  and  the  Barb  horses, 


6  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §36 

possessed  fine  coats  of  hair  and  refined  heads  with  heavy- 
jaws  and  broad  foreheads.  Horses  of  the  Norse  and  African 
types  have  been  largely  used  in  the  foundation  and  develop- 
ment of  modern  breeds.  The  blood  of  the  Norse-type  horses 
predominates  in  many  of  the  draft  and  coach  breeds,  and 
that  of  the  African-type  horses  in  most  of  the  breeds  of  light 
horses.  

MODERN   TYPES 

5.  Among  modern  breeds  of  horses  four  types  are  recog- 
nized, namely,  the  saddle  type,  the  roadster  type,  the  coach,  or 
carriage,  type,  and  the  draft  type.  The  roadster  type  is  some- 
times called  the  light-harness  type,  and  the  coach,  or  carriage, 
type,  the  heavy-harness  type.  The  saddle  type  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  the  American  Saddle  Horse. 

6.  Roadster  Type. — The  roadster  type  of  horse  is  repre- 
sented principally  by  the  horses  of  two  breeds,  the  American 
Trotter  and  the  Orloff  Trotter,  although  some  horses  of  other 
breeds  are  roadsters.  Horses  of  this  type  are  similar  in 
having  great  speed  and  endurance,  and  hence  in  being  par- 
ticularly adapted  for  the  rapid  drawing  of  light  vehicles  over 
streets  and  roadways.  The  roadster  type  is  less  uniform 
than  any  of  the  other  types,  the  animals  included  in  it  exhib- 
iting a  wide  variance  in  height,  weight,   and  conformation. 

The  best  specimens  of  the  roadster  type  are  from  about 
15i  to  lof  hands  high  and  weigh  about  1,000  pounds.  They 
are  decidedly  angular  but  very  muscular,  especially  at  the 
croup  and  quarters.  The  joints  and  muscles  are  usually 
prominent.  The  head  is  lean  and  refined,  but  spirited;  the 
neck  is  long  and  slender;  the  shoulders  are  long,  sloping,  and 
deeply  set  in  the  back  at  a  point  nearest  the  withers;  the 
legs  are  thinly  fleshed,  and  have  prominent  tendons  and 
well-developed  muscles ;  the  pasterns  should  stand  at  an  angle 
of  about  45°  with  the  ground,  and  be  long  and  elastic;  the 
feet  should  be  of  fair  size,  round,  and  preferably  dark  in 
color.  The  body  of  the  roadster  is  usually  closely  coupled, 
strongly  ribbed,  and  heavily  muscled  in  the  loin;  the  thighs 
and  hindquarters  are  long  and  narrow. 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  7 

Quality  and  action  are  essential  in  the  roadster,  and  in 
the  best  animals  are  usually  strongly  marked.  In  such 
animals,  the  bone  is  of  fine  texture  and  smooth;  the  hair  is 
glossy  and  fine ;  the  skin  is  soft ;  and  all  of  the  parts  are  refined 
and  symmetrical  but  strong  and  durable.  The  action  is 
snappy,  the  feet  being  lifted  high  and  the  legs  carried  far 
forwards  and  backwards,  thus  giving  a  long  stride. 

7.  Coach,  or  Carriage,  Type. — The  coach,  or  carriage,  type 
of  horse  is  represented  principally  by  horses  of  the  following 
breeds :  Hackney,  French  Coach,  German  Coach,  and  Cleveland 
Bay.  The  horses  of  this  type  are  especially  adapted  for 
the  drawing  of  vehicles,  such  as  coaches  and  carriages,  that 
are  too  heavy  for  horses  of  the  roadster  type.  They  are  used 
for  various  other  purposes,  however,  on  account  of  their 
strength  and  endurance. 

Good  specimens  of  the  coach,  or  carriage,  type  are  about 
16  hands  high;  mares  and  geldings  weigh  from  about  1,100 
to  1,250  pounds,  and  stallions  from  about  1,250  to  1,450 
pounds,  according  to  breed.  They  are  not  nearly  so  angular 
as  the  roadsters  nor  are  they  as  speedy.  In  the  best  animals 
of  the  coach,  or  carriage,  type  the  head  is  lean  and  graceful; 
the  neck  is  somewhat  long  and  arched ;  the  chest  is  medium  in 
fulness;  the  shoulders  are  long  and  sloping;  the  body  is  round, 
broad  in  the  back,  short  on  top,  and  long  below;  the  croup  is 
long,  rather  level,  and  heavily  muscled;  the  thighs  are  mus- 
cular and  clean  in  outline ;  the  legs  are  clean  cut  and  spare ; 
the  pasterns  stand  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  the  ground 
line;  and  the  feet  are  round,  fair  sized,  wide  at  the  heel,  and 
of  dark,  hard  horn. 

In  quality  and  action,  the  best  animals  of  the  coach,  or 
carriage,  type  are  highly  developed.  The  bone  is  smooth 
and  of  good  texture;  the  hair  is  glossy  and  fine;  the  skin  is 
soft;  and  the  muscles  and  veins  are  somewhat  prominent 
and  clean  cut  in  outline.  The  action  is  snappy  and  true, 
the  legs  being  carried  forwards  in  a  straight  line.  Horses 
of  the  coach  type  have  higher  action  than  those  of  the  road- 
ster type,   but  do  not  have  the  reach  of  the  latter.     Gen- 

243—26 


8  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AXD  §  36 

erally  speaking,  a  coach  horse  is  expected  to  have  a  speed 
of  from  8  to  10  miles  an  hour,  if  traveling  at  a  normal  gait. 

8.  Draft  Type. — Horses  of  the  following  breeds  constitute 
the  draft  type  of  horse:  the  Perclieron,  the  Clydesdale,  the 
Shire,  the  Belgian,  the  Suffolk,  and  the  French  Draft.  Horses 
of  these  breeds  have  massive  frames  and  hence  are  capable 
of  drawing  heavy  loads.  They  usually  stand  from  16  to 
17^  hands  high.  As  a  rule,  the  mares  and  geldings  weigh 
from  about  1,500  to  1,S00  pounds,  and  the  stallions  from 
about  1,700  to  2,000  pounds. 

In  the  best  animals  of  this  type  the  head  is  lean,  broad 
between  the  eyes  and  at  the  muzzle,  the  nostrils  are  wide, 
and  the  jaws  are  powerful;  the  neck  is  strong,  slightly  arched, 
and  joined  smoothly  and  deeply  to  the  body;  the  shoulders 
are  less  sloping  than  those  of  roadster  and  coach  horses ;  the 
chest  is  full  and  deep ;  the  legs  are  smooth  but  heavily  muscled ; 
the  pasterns  slope  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  with  the  ground 
line;  the  feet  are  large,  concave  at  the  sole,  and  of  dense,  hard 
horn;  the  body  is  short  on  top  and  long  below,  broad  along 
the  loins,  with  the  ribs  strongly  arched;  the  croup  is  broad, 
fiat,  and  heavily  muscled;  and  the  thighs  are  thick  and  full. 

The  quality  and  action  of  draft-type  horses  are  not  so 
important  as  in  the  case  of  horses  of  the  roadster  or  the  coach 
type.  The  draft  horse  owes  his  efficiency  more  to  his  weight 
and  muscle  than  to  speed  or  appearance.  Notwithstanding, 
quality  and  action  in  draft  horses  are  given  much  attention 
by  horsemen.  It  is  desirable  that  draft  horses  have  massive 
but  smooth  bone  -that  is  of  good  texture,  fine  hair  and  skin, 
and  clean-cut  lines.  The  action  should  be  bold  and  true. 
As  viewed  from  the  front  or  rear,  the  movement  of  the  limbs 
should  be  in  a  straight  line.  The  feet  should  be  picked  up 
with  snap  and  lifted  clear  of  the  ground,  the  soles  being  shown 
in  the  movement.  Hock  action  is  relatively  unimportant,  but 
there  should  be  a  full,  free  action  in  these  parts.  As  the 
draft  horse  does  most  of  his  work  at  the  walk,  it  is  desirable 
that  he  should  have  a  rather  rapid  gait  when  thus  moving. 


§  30  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


BREEDS   OF  HORSES 


THE   ARAB 

9.  Origin  and  Development— The  native  home  of  the 
Arab  breed  of  horse  is  in  Arabia,  an  Asiatic  country  of  vast 
extent,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  breed  is  not  indigenous  to 
that  country.  The  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Arab  horse 
has  been  the  cause  of  much  discussion  and  still  remains 
unsolved.  The  Arabs  have  kept  no  written  records  of  their 
horses,  preferring,  rather,  to  depend  on  memory,  conse- 
quently information  concerning  the  breed  is  meager  and 
obscured  in  myth.  Arab  horses  began  to  become  noted  for 
their  superior  qualities  about  the  13th  century.  Practically 
nothing  is  known  of  their  history  prior  to  that  time,  although 
the  breed  is  known  to  have  existed  for  many  centuries. 

According  to  tradition,  a  certain  Arabic  tribe,  the  Anezah, 
at  about  1635  B.  C.  owned  five  famous  mares  and  from  these 
mares  has  come  the  purest  and  best  Arab  blood.  These 
mares  were  designated  as  Al  Khamseh.  The  Al  Khamseh 
mares  were  the  ancestors  of  five  great  families,  each  of  which 
was  subdivided  into  a  number  of  subfamilies.  Of  these 
five  families,  that  of  Keheilet  Ajuz,  which  has  seventeen 
subfamilies,  is  the  most  popular  and  prized. 

So  carefully  have  the  Arabs  preserved  the  early  stock 
from  admixture  and  so  closely  have  they  followed  the  true 
lines  of  breeding  that  the  Arab  horses  of  the  present  day 
possess  a  degree  of  perfection  that  is  unequaled  in  the  horses 
of  any  other  country. 

A  few  notable  Arab  stallions  of  pure  breeding  that  have 
become  famous  are:  Kismet,  Maidan,  Kouch,  El  Emir,  Kars, 
Shahwan,  Cunningham,  and  Himyarite.  The  most  noted 
modern  mares  of  the  breed  are  Haidee,  Naomi,  Keziah,  and 
Nazli. 


10  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §  36 

10.  Influence  on  Other  Breeds. — Arab  horses  have  been 
widely  used  for  cross-breeding.  The  blood  of  the  Arab  has 
been  used  for  improving  the  English  Thoroughbred,  the 
Hackney,  and,  to  a  slight  extent,  various  other  breeds  of 
Britain  and  continental  Europe,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Percheron,  the  French  Coach,  the  German  Coach, 
and  the  Orloff  Trotter.  Wherever  used,  Arab  horses  have 
transmitted  quality,  intelligence,  constitution,  and  style  to 
the  breeds  with  which  they  have  been  crossed.  Of  late  years 
an  important  use  of  Arab  sires  is  the  breeding  of  them  to 
Welsh,  Xew  Forest,  Exmoor,  or  similar  ponies,  to  produce 
ponies  for  use  in  polo  playing. 

11.  The  Arab  in  North  America. — Arab  horses  in  small 
numbers  were  first  imported  into  North  America  many  years 
ago.  The  first  volume  of  Bruce's  American  Stud  Book  con- 
tains the  names  of  forty-two  stallions  and  twelve  mares  of  the 
breed  that  were  imported  into  the  United  States  between  the 
years  1760  and  I860.  Since  that  time  there  have  been  many 
importations  of  horses  from  Arabia  to  the  United  States  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  and  rejuvenating  American  strains 
of  race  horses,  and  a  number  of  pure-bred  Arabian  studs 
have  been  established. 

12.  Description. — In  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  typical  Arab 
stallion.  Fig.  3  shows  the  pure-bred  imported  Arab  mare 
Markesa,  owned  by  Doctor  Dutton,  of  Oregon.  Arab  horses 
range  from  14  to  15  hands  in  height,  rarely  exceeding 
15J  hands.  The  head  is  of  splendid  appearance,  being  broad 
and  high,  the  muzzle  short  and  fine,  the  face  bony,  the  veins 
handsomely  coursed,  the  nostrils  large,  the  ears  small  and 
well  set,  the  eyes  large  and  prominent,  and  the  jaw  heavy 
and  wide,  giving  an  abundance  of  room  for  the  windpipe. 
The  neck  is  deep  where  it  joins  the  shoulder,  of  good  length, 
and  nicely  turned  in  the  throat  latch.  The  shoulders  are  long 
and  obliquely  set,  but  the  withers  are  often  too  thick  and  are 
inclined  to  be  rather  low  for  saddle  purposes.  The  body  is 
rather  short  and  usually  deeply  ribbed,  the  ribs  springing  out 
well  from  the  spine  with  a  symmetrical  curve;  the  back  is 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  13 

well  sustained  with  heavy  muscles;  the  loins  are  broad  and 
muscular;  the  croup  is  rather  long  and  level,  and  the  tail 
is  set  high  and  usually  carried  with  style;  the  quarters  are 
long  and  deep,  but  the  gaskins  and  hocks  are  not  of  the  most 
approved  shape.  The  legs  and  feet  are  of  good  size  and 
shape  for  strength. 

Contrary  to  popular  opinion,  the  prevailing  color  of  the 
Arab  is  not  snow  white,  or  coal  black,  or  spotted.  The  best 
authorities  state  that  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  animals  are 
bays,  about  20  per  cent,  are  chestnuts,  and  about  30  per  cent. 
are  grays  and  whites  with  dark  skin;  occasionally  a  brown 
specimen  is  found  and  very  rarely  a  black. 

As  a  saddle  horse  the  Arab  ranks  high.  Animals  of  this 
breed  have  always  been  accustomed  to  being  ridden,  and 
have  developed  remarkable  powers  of  endurance,  carrying 
riders  day  after  day,  in  a  scorching  sun,  with  little  feed  and 
water.  When  hitched  to  a  carriage,  the  Arab  horse  is 
attractive  and  easily  controlled. 

13.  Registration. — In  America,  the  registration  of  Arab 
horses  is  in  charge  of  the  Arabian  Horse  Club  of  America. 
This  organization  publishes  a  studbook  entitled,  Stud  Book 
of  the  Arabian  Horse  Club  of  America.  In  Great  Britain, 
registration  is  provided  for  in  the  General  Stud  Book.  The 
Arabs  have  never  recorded  the  pedigrees  of  their  animals, 
but  have  handed  them  down  from  generation  to  generation 
by  word  of  mouth. 

THE    THOROUGHBRED 

14.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Thoroughbred  breed 
of  horses,  or  the  breed  of  British  racing  horses,  the  animals 
of  which  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  blooded  Jiorscs,  origi- 
nated in  the  southern  part  of  England.  The  breed  had  its 
origin  in  a  union  of  the  blood  of  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Turkish 
horses  with  that  of  the  lighter  native  horses  of  England. 
These  native  horses  were  the  progeny  of  animals  that  were 
imported  from  Flanders,  Normandy,  Germany,  Spain,  and 
the  Orient  at  an  early  date. 


14  TYPES,  BREEDS,   AND  s<  36 

The  first  attempt  .at  the  breeding  of  horses  in  England  was 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  larger  animals  for  the  drawing 
of  chariots  and  the  bearing  of  armored  knights  in  time  of  war. 
When  warfare  by  chariot  and  armored  knight  became  obsolete, 
the  nobility  turned  their  attention  to  the  breeding  of  a  lighter 
type  of  horses  for  racing  purposes.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century  that  breeding  along 
definite  lines,  especially  for  the  production  of  race  horses, 
began.  At  about  this  time  many  importations  of  oriental 
hoises  were  made.  Of  these  imported  animals,  three  stallions 
exercised  an  extremely  important  influence  in  the  formation 
of  the  Thoroughbred  breed,  namely,  the  Godolphin  Barb, 
the  Byerly  Turk,  and  the  Darley  Arabian.  Three  English- 
bred  horses  that  were  instrumental  in  founding  the  breed 
were:  Herod,  Matchem,  and  Eclipse.  From  this  miscel- 
laneous foundation  stock  of  merely  light  horses  the  Thorough- 
bred breed  has  been  gradually  developed  to  one  in  which 
speed  is  the  most  conspicuous  character. 

The  term  thoroughbred  was  first  used  as  an  adjective, 
much  as  it  is  used  at  the  present  time  in  describing  purity  of 
breeding,  but  having  been  first  applied  to  these  light,  speed 
horses,  it  has  become  adopted  as  a  noun,  and  now  constitutes 
the  name  of  the  breed. 

15.     The    Thoroughbred    in    North    America. — The    first 

Thoroughbred  to  be  brought  to  North  America,  it  is  said, 
was  Bulle  Rock,  imported  into  Virginia  in  1730.  During 
the  ISth  century  some  of  the  most  famous  horses  of  the  breed 
were  imported.  Horsemen  of  Kentucky,  Virginia,  South 
Carolina,  and  Maryland  became  interested  in  Thoroughbred 
horses  in  early  times  and  exerted  a  strong  influence  in  the 
exploitation  of  the  breed  and  the  promotion  of  horse  racing. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  a  large  number  of  Thoroughbreds 
in  North  America,  but  they  do  not  have  a  large  economic 
place,  inasmuch  as  they  are  used  almost  entirely  for  sporting 
purposes.  In  Table  I  is  given  a  list  of  the  most  famous 
American  Thoroughbreds,  with  the  year  that  each  was  foaled, 
and  the  sire  and  dam  of  each  animal. 


§30 


MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


15 


16.  Description.— In  Fig.  4  is  shown  a  typical  animal  of 
the  Thoroughbred  breed.  Fig.  5  shows  Water  Color,  a 
famous  Kentucky  thoroughbred.  The  modern  Thoroughbred 
is  from  15  to  16  hands  high,  and  weighs  from  900  to  1,200 
pounds.  According  to  a  noted  authority,  the  average  height 
of  Thoroughbred  horses  increased  from  14  hands  in  the  year 

TABLE    I 

FAMOUS  AMERICAN  THOROUGHBREDS 


Foaled 

Name 

Sire 

Dam 

1805 

Sir  Archie 

Diomed 

Castianira 

1814 

American  Eclipse 

Duroc 

Miller's  Damsel 

1833 

Boston 

Timoleon 

Sister  of  Tuckahoe 

1850 

Lexington 

Boston 

Alice  Carneal 

1858 

Australian 

West  Australian 

Emilia 

i860 

Norfolk 

Lexington 

Novice 

i860 

Emperor 

Leamington 

1867 

Longfellow 

Leamington 

Nantura 

1867 

Enquirer 

Leamington 

Lida 

1872 

Tom  O'Chiltree 

Lexington 

Katona 

1874 

Parole 

Leamington 

Maiden 

i875 

Himyar 

Alarm 

Hira 

1876 

Spendthrift 

Australian 

Aerolite 

1877 

Luke  Blackburn 

Bonnie  Scotland 

Nevada 

1878 

Foxhall 

King  Alfonso 

lamaica 

1878 

Iroquois 

Leamington 

Maggie  B.  B. 

1883 

The  Bard 

Longfellow 

Brademante 

1884 

Firenzi 

Glenelg 

Florida 

1884 

Ormonde 

Bend  Or 

Lilv  Agnes 

1884 

Hanover 

Hindoo 

Bourbon  Belle 

1885 

Emperor  of  Norfolk 

Norfolk 

Marian 

1886 

Salvator 

Prince  Charlie 

Salina 

1891 

Hamburg 

Hanover 

1 

Lady  Reel 

1700  to  15i  hands  in  the  year  1900.  The  Thoroughbred  has 
a  fine,  lean  head  that  possesses  quality,  eyes  that  are  prom- 
inent and  intelligent,  ears  of  medium  size,  a  broad  forehead, 
a  heavy  jaw,  and  a  refined  muzzle.  The  neck  is  long  and 
rather  thin,  the  crest  fairly  straight  from  the  withers  to  the 
poll,  and  the  head  carried  somewhat  low  with  the  nose  pointing 


16 


18  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AXD  §36 

forwards  when  the  animal  is  running.  In  the  best  specimens 
of  the  breed,  the  shoulders  are  obliquely  set  and  well  covered 
with  muscle,  and  the  withers  are  high  and  thin.  The  chest 
of  a  Thoroughbred  has  a  tendency  to  be  narrow  and  deep; 
very  narrow  chests,  however,  are  objectionable.  It  is  desir- 
able that  the  front  legs,  from  the  bottom,  or  floor,  of  the  chest 
to  the  ground,  should  be  little  more  than  half  the  height  of 
the  horse.  The  back  and  loins  are  comparatively  short  and 
well  muscled,  the  conformation  of  these  parts  indicating  an 
ability  of  the  animal  to  carry  weight.  The  ribs  are  long  and 
well  sprung.  The  croup  is  of  good  length,  rather  level,  and 
curved  gracefully  with  the  tail,  which  is  attached  at  a  medium 
height  and  is  somewhat  lightly  haired.  The  Thoroughbred  is 
heavily  muscled  in  the  thighs  and  quarters,  which  are  long 
and  deep,  exhibiting  great  propelling  power.  The  gaskins, 
or  lower  thighs,  should  be  broad,  and  the  feet  and  joints 
should  show  strength  and  quality.  The  cannons  are  broad 
and  the  pasterns  are  longer  than  those  of  any  other  breed 
and  frequently  too  sloping.  It  is  desirable  that  the  hind 
legs  should  be  a  trifle  straighter  than  in  the  case  of  harness 
horses. 

In  color,  Thoroughbred  horses  are  variable.  Bay  and 
brown  are  the  most  common  and  the  most  popular  colors, 
although  chestnut  is  by  no  means  uncommon,  and  black, 
sorrel,  gray,  and  roan  occasionally  occur. 

The  Thoroughbred  is  nervous  and  mettlesome  in  tempera- 
ment and  possesses  great  spirit  and  endurance. 

17.  Speed  Records  of  Thoroughbreds. — The  Thoroughbred 
breed  is  preeminent  in  speed  performance.  Races  between 
Thoroughbreds  are  run  at  a  running  gait  under  the  saddle, 
with  jockeys  up.  One  of  the  fastest  records  of  a  Thorough- 
bred is  that  of  1 :35^  for  the  mile,  made  by  Salvator  in  1S90 
on  a  straightaway  track  at  Monmouth  Park,  Xew  Jersey. 
In  1903,  Dick  Wells  ran  a  mile  in  l:37f  on  the  Harlem  track, 
and  Alan-a-Dale  went  a  mile  on  the  Washington  Park  track 
in  l:37f.  In  1855,  Lexington  ran  4  miles  in  7:19f  in  a 
race  against  time.     Ten  Broeck,  in    1S7G,  in  a  race  against 


36 


MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


19 


time,  lowered  the  4-mile  record  to  7 :  15f .  This  same  year 
he  ran  a  mile  in  l:39f,  which  was  the  record  for  about 
13  years.  Luke  Blackburn,  a  famous  Thoroughbred,  when 
4  years  of  age,  ran  a  mile  at  Jerome  Park  in  1:45. 

TABLE    II 

SPEED     PERFORMANCE    OF    THOROUGHBREDS     IN     ANNUAL 

SUBURBAN     HANDICAP     FOR     1'4    MILES, 

AND    TIIK  IB     WINNINGS 


Year 

Horse 

Weight 
Carried 

Time 

Winnings 

1890 

Salvator 

127 

2:06-5 

$6,900 

1891 

Loantaka 

1 10 

2:07^ 

9,900 

1892 

Montana 

US 

2:07! 

17.75° 

1893 

Lowlander 

i°5 

2  :o6§ 

17.75° 

1894 

Ramapo 

1  20 

2:06! 

12,070 

1895 

Lazzarone 

"5 

2:07! 

4,730 

1896 

Henry  of  Navarre 

128 

2:07 

5.850 

1897 

Ben  Brush 

123 

2:07! 

5.850 

1898 

Tillo 

119 

2:08^ 

6,800 

1899 

Imp 

114 

2:085- 

6,800 

1900 

Kinley  Mack 

I25 

2:065- 

6,800 

1901 

Alcedo 

112 

2:09! 

7,800 

1902 

Gold  Heels 

124 

2:055- 

7,800 

I903 

Africander 

1 10 

2:105 

16,490 

I903 

(Renewal) — Water  Boy 

112 

2:04! 

9,900 

1904 

Hermis 

127 

2:05 

17,000 

I905 

Beldame 

123 

2:05! 

16,800 

1906 

Go  Between 

116 

2:05! 

16,800 

1907 

Nealon 

113 

2:065- 

16,800 

1908 

Ballot 

127 

2:03 

19,750 

1909 

Fitz  Herbert 

i°5 

2:03! 

3.850 

1910 

Olambala 

IJ5 

2:04-1 

4,800 

One  of  the  great  running  races  formerly  held  annually  in 
America  was  the  Suburban  Handicap  of  14;  miles,  which  was 
run  at  Sheepshead  Bay,  New  York.     In  Table  II  is  shown 


20  TYPES,   BREEDS,  AND  §36 

a  list  of  some  of  the  winners  of  this  event  with  the  year  of  the 
race,  the  weight  of  the  jockey,  the  time,  and  the  money  won 
by  the  winning  horse. 

In  England,  the  three  so-called  classic  races  run  each  year 
are  the  Derby,  the  Oaks,  and  the  St.  Leger,  each  of  which 
is  very  old.  The  Derby  was  founded  at  Epsom  in  1780;  the 
Oaks  in  1779,  for  fillies  only;  and  the  St.  Leger  in  1776.  Of 
these  events,  the  Derby  probably  attracts  the  most  attention. 
Since  1784,  the  distance  run  in  the  Derby  has  been  1£  miles. 

18.  Registration. — Nearly  200  years  ago  racing  calendars 
were  established  in  England.  Bailey  Brothers'  Racing  Reg- 
ister, which  first  appeared  sometime  between  1720  and  1730, 
was  one  of  the  best  of  these  early  registers,  or  calendars.  In 
it  were  the  names  of  the  horses  that  had  appeared  in  the 
various  races  of  the  year  prior  to  its  publication,  their  records, 
and  their  sires.  This  publication  has  been  continued  up  to 
the  present  time  with  but  slight  alterations.  In  1791,  the 
English  Stud  Book,  then  called  Weatherby's  Stud  Book, 
assumed  its  present  form.  William  Pick,  of  York,  England, 
a  rival  of  Weatherby,  published  the  first  volume  of  Pick's 
Turf  Register  in  1793,  the  same  year  that  Weatherby's  Stud 
Book  first  appeared;  however,  Pick  published  a  collection 
of  pedigrees  in  1786,  antedating  Weatherby's  publication  by 
5  years.  Pick's  Turf  Register  continued  for  75  years,  and 
four  volumes  in  all  were  published.  Weatherby's  Stud 
Book,  which  has  been  changed  to  the  General  Stud  Book, 
has  published  twenty-two  volumes.  American  Thorough- 
breds are  registered  in  the  American  Jockey  Club  Stud  Book, 
which  has  published  nine  volumes. 


THE    AMERICAN    SADDLE    HORSE 

19.  Origin  and  Development. — Between  1830  and  1840 
many  horses  were  taken  into  Kentucky,  principally  from 
Virginia  and  other  eastern  states  and  from  Canada.  Most 
of  the  horses  from  Virginia  were  either  Thoroughbreds  or 
animals  largely  permeated  with  Thoroughbred  blood.     Many 


§36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  21 

of  those  taken  from  New  York  and  the  New  England  states 
were  pacers,  and  were  descendants  from  crosses  of  the  early 
French-Canadian  marcs  with  the  stallions  of  New  York  and 
New  England.  It  is  probable,  also,  that  many  of  them  were 
descendants  of  the  Naragansett  Pacer,  a  well-known  strain 
that  existed  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  in  colonial 
times. 

Naturally,  these  pacing  horses,  when  taken  to  Kentucky, 
were  crossed  with  the  Thoroughbreds  that  had  been  brought 
from  Virginia.  In  early  days,  many  Thoroughbred  horses 
were  bred  in  Kentucky,  as  was  the  case  in  Virginia,  but  many 
of  the  early  settlers  preferred  the  cross-bred  animals,  because 
they  were  stronger  and  more  useful,  particularly  for  saddle 
purposes.  Horseback  riding  was  the  principal  mode  of 
traveling  in  those  days,  as  the  roads  were  but  little  more  than 
bridle  paths,  and  pleasure  vehicles  were  almost  unknown. 

In  time  it  was  observed  that  certain  Thoroughbred  crosses 
produced  better  horses  than  others  for  saddle  purposes,  and 
the  strains  most  useful  were  sought.  Most  notable  in  the 
siring  of  good  saddle  horses  was  Denmark  and  his  three  sons, 
Gaines's  Denmark,  Rob  Roy,  and  Muir's  Denmark.  These 
animals  became  the  tap  root  of  the  American  Saddle  Horse 
breed.  Although  the  Denmark  family  of  horses  was  indigen- 
ous to  Kentucky,  other  states  contributed  to  the  founding 
of  the  breed,  namely,  Tennessee,  the  Virginias,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas.  Wherever  the  country  was 
rough  or  mountainous,  saddle  horses  could  be  found,  as  they 
were  a  necessity  in  the  development  of  the  region. 

When  the  National  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association 
was  organized,  fifteen  stallions  were  recognized  as  being  the 
foundation  stock  of  the  American  Saddle  Horse  breed.  From 
time  to  time  non-producing  sires  were  stricken  from  the  list 
until  in  1904  only  ten  remained;  and  in  1908  the  association 
decided  to  recognize  only  the  Thoroughbred  horse,  Denmark, 
as  the  foundation  stock  and  gave  the  other  horses  numbers, 
as  deceased  sires,  as  follows:  Cabell's  Lexington,  3,234; 
John  Dillard,  3,235;  Davy  Crockett,  3,230;  Tom  Hall,  3,237; 
Coleman's  Eureka,  3,238;  Van  Meter's  Waxy,  3,23!);  Stumo 


22  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §36 

the  Dealer,  3,240;  Peter's  Halcorn,  3,241;  and  Pat  Cleburne, 
3,242. 

A  family  that  should  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
American  Saddle  Horse  breed,  although  not  recognized  as 
foundation  stock,  is  that  of  Mambrino  Chief,  a  horse  that 
figured  prominently  in  American  trotting  horse  history. 
Mambrino  Chief  sired  Clark  Chief,  and  he  Harrison  Chief, 
from  whose  loins  have  come  many  good  saddle  horses. 
Another  horse  whose  name  should  be  mentioned  is  Rex 
McDonald  833,  a  line-bred  Denmark  that  defeated  all  comers 
in  the  show  ring  and  was  finally  barred  because  no  one  would 
show  against  him,  feeling  that  it  was  entirely  useless. 

The  two  most  famous  saddle-horse  sires  were  Black  Squirrel 
58,  sired  by  Black  Eagle  74,  tracing  to  Old  Denmark;  and 
Montrose  106,  by  Diamond  Denmark  68.  Black  Squirrel 
sired  more  good  saddle  horses  than  any  other  horse  of  his 
time.  His  most  celebrated  son  was  Highland  Denmark  750. 
Monte  Cristo  59  was  the  best  son  of  Montrose  106. 

The  development  of  the  American  Saddle  Horse  suffered 
two  severe  setbacks:  first,  the  civil  war;  second,  the  sudden 
springing  into  popularity  of  standard-bred  horses.  Although 
the  breed  suffered  because  of  the  civil  war,  it  may  also  have 
gained  something,  for  in  this  severe  test  it  proved  its  merit, 
and  horses  of  the  breed  were  unequaled  by  those  of  any  other 
breed.  At  the  end  of  the  civil  war  admirers  of  the  saddle 
horse  picked  up  the  fragments  of  the  breed  that  were  left 
and  began  once  more  to  develop  it.  When  the  speed  craze 
swept  over  the  United  States  it  affected  to  a  marked  degree 
the  breeding  of  saddle  horses.  Because  of  the  extremely 
high  prices  paid  for  standard-bred  horses,  a  large  number  of 
saddle  mares  were  bred  to  standard-bred  stallions  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  animals  that  would  be  worth  more 
money.  Such  breeding,  meeting  with  indifferent  success, 
was  abandoned  in  time  and  the  breeding  of  saddle  horses  was 
resumed  on  a  more  firm  and  substantial  basis  than  ever  before. 

20.  Description. — In  Fig.  6  is  shown  Rex  McDonald,  a 
noted   animal   of  the   American    Saddle    Horse   breed.     The 


23 


24  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §36 

size  most  desired  for  animals  of  this  breed  is  a  height  of  from 
15  hands  H  inches  to  15  hands  2  h  inches  and  a  weight  of 
from  950  to  1,100  pounds.  The  saddle  horse  exhibits  much 
st vie  in  carriage  of  head  and  in  arch  of  neck  and  tail.  In 
the  best  animals  of  the  breed,  the  back  is  very  strong 
and  hence  capable  of  sustaining  considerable  weight.  The 
shoulders  and  pasterns  are  usually  long,  obliquely  set,  and 
spring}'.  The  croup  is  long  and  level,  and  the  tail  is  long, 
set  high,  and  stylishly  carried. 

The  most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  saddle  horse  is  his 
variety  of  gaits.  The  three  natural  gaits  of  a  horse  are  the 
walk,  trot,  and  gallop.  The  gallop,  in  the  case  of  the  saddle 
horse,  has  been  changed  by  training  to  the  canter.  The  can- 
ter is  performed  by  practically  the  same  movement  of  the 
legs  as  the  gallop  but  is  slower  and  easier  on  the  rider.  Some 
saddle  horses  have  only  the  three  gaits,  the  walk,  the  trot, 
and  the  canter;  and  are  known  as  walk-trot-canter  horses  or 
merely  as  plain-gaited  horses.  Many  saddle  horses  have 
acquired  through  training  two  additional  gaits,  the  rack  and 
a  slow  gait.  The  rack  is  a  gait  in  which  each  foot  strikes  the 
ground  separately  and  in  a  peculiar  rhythm.  The  rack 
was  formerly  termed  the  single-foot  gait,  but  the  American 
Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association  has  officially  adopted  the 
term  rack.  The  slow  gait  may  be  either  the  running  walk, 
the  slow  pace,  or  the  fox  trot,  all  of  which  are  closely  allied. 
The  running  walk  is  faster  than  the  common  walk  but  is 
performed  with  the  same  rhythm;  that  is,  each  foot  strikes 
the  ground  independently  of  the  others.  The  slow  pace  is 
a  slower,  modified  form  of  the  common  pace.  The  fox  trot 
is  a  slow  trot  or  a  jog  trot.  A  horse  that  can  show  the  walk, 
the  trot,  the  canter,  the  rack,  and  the  running  walk  or  the 
slow  pace  or  the  fox  trot  is  called  a  gaited  horse. 

21.  Registration. — In  1891,  the  breeders  of  saddle  horses 
organized  the  National  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association 
for  the  promotion  of  the  breed  and  the  keeping  of  records. 
In  1S99,  the  name  was  changed  to  American  Saddle  Horse 
Breeders'    Association.     After    publishing    six    volumes    and 


§30  .MARKET  CLASSES  OE  HORSES  25 

recording  over  2,500  stallions  and  3,000  mares  and  geldings, 
the  association  has  set  about  to  revise  the  registration  by 
correcting  some  errors  and  ejecting  some  fraudulent  pedigrees 
that  unavoidably  crept  in. 


THE    MORGAN 

22.  Origin  and  Development.  -The  Morgan  breed  of  horses 
originated  in  the  New  England  States,  particularly  in  Vermont 
and  New  Hampshire.  The  breed  owes  its  origin  to  a  famous 
stallion,  Justin  Morgan,  foaled  in  1789  at  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts. This  horse  had  phenomenal  powers  of  prepotency, 
a  statement  that  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  certain  char- 
acters which  he  possessed  and  which  are  called  Morgan  are 
even  yet  being  transmitted  to  his  descendants.  Xot  much 
is  definitely  known  of  the  early  ancestors  of  Justin  Morgan, 
but  it  is  generally  believed  that  he  traced  to  Thoroughbred 
blood  through  both  his  sire  and  dam.  It  is  believed  that  his 
sire  was  True  Briton,  a  horse  that  is  said  to  have  been  captured 
from  Col.  James  De  Lancey,  an  officer  in  the  British  Army, 
during  the  Revolutionary  war.  His  dam  was  a  medium- 
sized,  light-bay  animal  with  a  brownish  mane  and  tail. 

Justin  Morgan  stood  about  14  hands  high,  weighed  950 
pounds,  and  was  dark  bay  in  color,  with  black  points.  He 
sired  three  sons  that  were  noted  sires,  namely,  Sherman 
Morgan,  Bulrush  Morgan,  and  Woodbury  Morgan.  Sherman 
Morgan,  the  most  illustrious  of  the  sons,  did  more  to  establish 
and  popularize  the  breed  than  any  other.  When  he  was 
24  years  old,  he  sired  Black  Hawk,  who,  in  turn,  sired  Ethan 
Allen,  a  horse  that  as  a  4-year-old  made  a  trotting  record 
of  2:15  for  the  mile.  Ethan  Allen  became  very  noted  and 
his  blood  was  sought  after  as  a  desirable  introduction  into 
the  American  Trotting  horse  for  speed  production.  His  most 
popular  son  was  Daniel  Lambert.  Sherman  Morgan  was  a 
small  horse  standing  13§  hands  high  and  weighing  925  pounds. 
Most  of  his  immediate  descendants  were  small  horses  standing 
from  14  to  15  hands  high  and  weighing  from  900  to  1,050 
pounds. 


26  TYPES,  BREEDS.  AXD  §  36 

Through  the  descendants  of  Bulrush  Morgan  came  Morrill, 
and  he  sired  Fearnaught,  who  made  a  record  of  2:23$  for  the 
mile  and  was  the  sire  of  many  good  horses.  The  horses  of 
this  family  were  small  also  but  were  less  speedy,  and,  in 
general,  were  a  little  more  blocky  and  had  a  little  heavier 
bone  than  the  descendants  of  Sherman  Morgan. 

Woodbury  Morgan  sired  Gifford  Morgan,  and  he  Green 
Mountain  Morgan,  the  most  noted  son  of  this  branch  of  the 
family.  Woodbury  Morgan,  also,  was  a  small  horse,  stand- 
ing 14|  hands  high  and  weighing  1,000  pounds. 

The  speed  craze  that  swept  over  the  country  a  few  years 
ago  nearly  ruined  the  breed,  and  the  Morgans  were  as  ruth- 
lessly discarded  and  pronounced  of  no  value  as  they  had 
been  popular  in  Ethan  Allen's  day.  Only  a  few  breeders 
had  the  courage  to  continue  to  breed  the  much  despised 
Morgan,  as  it  was  considered  a  work  of  charity  to  continue 
to  breed  a  horse  so  universally  rejected  as  to  make  profitable 
sales  almost  an  impossibility.  At  the  present  time,  how- 
ever, Morgan  blood  is  strongly  appreciated  and  an  infusion 
of  it  on  the  dam's  side  is  usually  regarded  as  strengthening 
an  animal  either  for  speed,  carriage,  or  saddle  purposes. 

The  Morgan  type  is  much  sought  for  by  lovers  of  heavy- 
harness  horses,  but  Morgan  horses  are  not  large  enough  for 
this  class.  Whether  it  is  possible  to  increase  their  size  to 
that  of  the  coach  horse  and  still  retain  the  breed  type  and 
characteristics  is  yet  to  be  determined.  The  United  States 
government  has  taken  up  the  problem  to  see  what  can  be 
done  along  this  line,  and  has  established,  in  cooperation  with 
the  Vermont  Experiment  Station,  a  stud  of  Morgan  horses, 
at  Middlebury,  Vermont. 

23.  Description. — In  Fig.  7  is  shown  the  noted  Morgan 
stallion,  Gen.  Gates,  who  was  chosen  to  head  the  government 
stud  in  Vermont.  Gen.  Gates  is  a  great  grandson  of  Ethan 
Allen.     In  Fig.  8  is  shown  a  2-year-old  Morgan  filly. 

The  Morgan  horse  is  small,  standing  from  14  to  15^  hands 
high,  and  weighing  from  900  to  1,200  pounds.  The  head  is 
small  and  neat,  the  forehead  being  broad  and  high.     The  eyes 


28 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  29 

are  large  and  brown,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  hazel,  and  are 
neatly  set  in  the  head,  giving  the  animals  the  appearance  of 
being  spirited  yet  docile.  The  head  and  ears  are  smaller  and 
more  refined  than  those  of  the  American  Trotter,  and  the 
neck  is  longer,  has  a  better  crest,  and  is  set  better,  being 
carried  higher.  The  shoulders  are  long  and  obliquely  set, 
and  the  chest  is  deep  and  capacious,  indicating  endurance 
and  hardiness  of  constitution.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  char- 
acters of  the  breed,  as  many  of  the  early  Morgans  lived  to  be 
from  30  to  35  years  old.  The  back  is  short  and  well  muscled ; 
the  ribs  spring  well  from  the  spine,  giving  a  round  barrel; 
the  croup  is  long  and  the  tail  neatly  set;  and  the  limbs  are 
clean  and  cordy,  the  bone  being  of  the  best  quality.  The 
prevailing  colors  are  bay,  chestnut,  brown,  and  black. 
Although  but  few  Morgans  ever  attained  phenomenal  speed, 
most  of  them  have  good  action  and  are  clean,  open-gaited 
trotters.  Many  of  them  with  a  little  schooling  readily  acquire 
saddle  gaits. 

24.  Registration. — The  registration  of  Morgan  horses  is 
in  charge  of  the  American  Morgan  Register  Association,  whose 
headquarters  are  at  Middlebury,  Vermont.  The  first  volume 
of  the  register  was  issued  in  1892. 


BREEDS  OF  THE  ROADSTER  TYPE 


THE    AMERICAN     TROTTER 

25.  Origin  and  Development. — The  American  Trotter 
breed,  the  animals  of  which  are  commonly  known  as  stand- 
ard-bred horses,  includes  both  the  trotter  and  the  pacer. 
In  fact,  the  trotting  and  the  pacing  gaits  are  somewhat 
interchangeable  and  many  of  the  so-called  trotting  horses 
possess  both.  This  breed  is  far  from  having  a  fixed  and 
established  type.  In  its  early  development,  breeders  failed 
to  recognize  any  standard  toward  which  to  breed,  but  simply 
bred   for  speed.     The   American   Trotter   horse   is  scattered 


30  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §36 

widely  throughout  the  United  States,  being  found  in  almost 
every  section.  He  is  distinctly  the  product  of  America  and 
has  been  developed  because  of  the  love  of  Americans  for 
horse  racing  at  the  trotting  and  pacing  gaits.  The  breed 
was  at  its  height  of  favor  prior  to  1893,  and  horses  with  speed 
commanded  fabulous  prices.  Since  1S93,  breeding  has 
resumed  a  saner  course.  The  most  extensive  breeding  has 
been  carried  on  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  and  Kansas.  However,  some  of  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern states  also  have  had  a  number  of  large  breeding  farms 
located  within  their  borders. 

The  history  of  the  trotting  horse  in  America  extends  back 
into  colonial  times.  At  a  time  as  early  as  the  year  1629, 
light  horses,  probably  runners,  were  imported  from  England 
to  Massachusetts.  Horses  of  this  class  were  bred  also  in 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  Notwithstanding  this  early 
existence  of  light  horses  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States,  no  marked  progress  was  made  toward  the  foundation 
and  development  of  a  breed  until  a  period  beginning  about 
the  year  1800.  From  this  to  about  1820,  the  real  founda- 
tion of  the  American  Trotter  breed  was  brought  about. 
This  great  breed  traces  its  ancestry  to  two  noted  sires, 
Messenger  and  Jary's  Bellfounder. 

Messenger,  commonly  known  as  Imported  Messenger,  or 
by  the  abbreviated  name,  Imp.  Messenger,  was  a  Thorough- 
bred. He  was  foaled  in  England  in  1780,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  turf  when  3  years  old.  He  ran  two  suc- 
cessful races  at  that  age  and  continued  on  the  turf  until 
1785,  winning  eight  races  and  losing  six,  which  indicates 
that  he  was  of  only  ordinary  merit  as  a  race  horse.  The 
pedigree  given  with  him  states  that  he  was  sired  by  Mam- 
brino  and  that  his  pedigree  traces  in  direct  male  line  to  the 
famous  Thoroughbred  horse  Flying  Childers,  who  was  sired 
by  the  Darley  Arabian.  He  was  imported  in  1788  to  Phila- 
delphia, Pennsylvania.  Neither  Messenger  nor  his  sires 
were  trotters.  His  chief  fame  came  through  his  son,  Mam- 
brino  11,  who  sired  Abdallah  1  and  he  Hambletonian  10, 
commonly  known  as  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian. 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  31 

Jary's  Bellfounder  was  foaled  in  L815  and  was  imported 
from  Norfolk,  England,  in  1822.  He  was  a  bright  bay  with 
a  black  mane  and  tail,  stood  15  hands  high,  and  was  a  natural 
trotter.  He  came  from  a  trotting  family;  his  dam,  Velocity, 
was  said  to  have  trotted  18  miles  in  1  hour  and  47  seconds. 
Bellfounder  was  imported  into  Orange  County,  New  York, 
where  he  was  being  used  in  the  stud  when  he  sired  the  Charles 
Kent  Mare,  which  became  a  famous  dam. 

26.  Since  the  time  of  Messenger  and  Bellfounder,  several 
trotting  families  of  note  have  been  developed  in  America. 
The  most  important  of  these  are:  the  Hambletonian  family, 
the  Mambrino  family,  the  Morgan  family,  the  Clay  family, 
the  Blue  Bull  family,  and  the  Pilot  family. 

The  Hambletonian  family  of  trotting  horses  was  founded 
by  Hambletonian  10,  one  of  the  most  famous  horses  of  his- 
tory. Hambletonian  10  was  foaled  in  1849,  his  dam  being 
the  Charles  Kent  Mare  by  Bellfounder,  and  his  sire  Abdal- 
lah  1,  the  grandson  of  Messenger.  He  was  not  a  fast  horse; 
however,  as  a  3-year-old  he  made  a  record  of  2:48^  for  the 
mile  over  the  Union  Course,  New  York.  During  20  years  of 
service  in  the  stud  he  sired  1,287  foals  and  his  service  fees 
amounted  to  $185,715.  His  most  famous  sons  were:  George 
Wilkes,  Electioneer,  Happy  Medium,  Harold,  Dictator,  Vol- 
unteer, Strathmore,  Abdallah  15,  Aberdeen,  Egbert,  Messenger 
Duroc,  Edward  Everett,  Administrator,  and  Jay  Gould. 

The  Mambrino  family  of  trotters  derives  its  name  from 
that  of  Mambrino  Chief,  foaled  in  1844.  Mambrino  Chief 
was  the  son  of  Mambrino  Pay  Master,  by  Mambrino  11,  the 
son  of  Messenger.  When  7  years  old  he  passed  into  the  hands 
of  Messrs.  Cockroft  and  Williams,  who  kept  him  two  or  three 
seasons  in  Ulster  County,  New  York,  where,  under  the  saddle, 
he  trotted  a  mile  in  2:36.  He  was  sold  to  James  B.  Clay,  of 
Kentucky,  in  1854,  and  then  to  Messrs.  Grey  and  Jones  in 
1857.  His  blood  has  proved  of  more  value  to  the  American 
Trotter  than  that  of  any  other  horse  except  Hambletonian  10. 
The  best  results  have  been  secured  when  the  blood  of  these 
two  horses  was  coupled  together.     Many  of  the  progeny  of 


32  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §36 

Mambrino  Chief  paced,  and  his  blood  was  especially  valuable 
to  the  American  Saddle  Horse. 

The  Morgan  family  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Justin 
Morgan,  the  founder  of  the  Morgan  breed,  who  has  already 
been  described.  The  fame  of  the  Morgan  family  as  trotters 
came   largely  through  that  of  Ethan  Allen  and  his  progeny. 

The  Clay  family  was  founded  by  Grand  Bashaw,  a  horse 
imported  from  Tripoli  in  1S20  to  Montgomery  County,  Penn- 
sylvania. His  most  famous  son  was  Young  Bashaw.  Young 
Bashaw  sired  Andrew  Jackson,  one  of  the  fastest  trotters 
of  his  day.  Andrew  Jackson  was  bred  to  a  Canadian  trotting 
mare  named  Lady  Surrey,  owned  by  George  M.  Patchen, 
in  1S36,  from  which  service  she  foaled  Henry  Clay  in  1837, 
the  real  head  of  this  family.  While  Henry  Clay  was  con- 
sidered a  fast  horse  in  his  day,  he  sired  only  one  or  two  horses 
that  could  trot  a  mile  in  2:30.  His  most  famous  son  was 
Henry  Clay,  Jr.,  who  sired  Cassius  M.  Clay,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Clay  family.  Cassius  M.  Clay  sired  George  M. 
Patchen,  who  made  a  record  of  2:23^  in  I860,  and  was  the 
sire  of  sixteen  sons  who  made  excellent  record's.  Since  that 
time  the  family  has  been  practically  absorbed  by  other  strains 
and  is  scarcely  ever  mentioned  today. 

The  Blue  Bull  family  derives  its  name  from  the  famous 
sire,  Blue  Bull.  At  one  time  this  horse  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  all  trotting  sires  of  the  world,  taking  the  suprem- 
acy from  the  great  Hambletonian  family.  He  was  not  a 
trotter,  himself,  but  possessed  amazing  pacing  speed,  being 
able  to  step  a  quarter  in  30  seconds.  The  breeding  of  Blue 
Bull  is  very  obscure.  He  sired  fifty-six  trotters  and  four 
pacers  that  were  placed  in  the  2:30  class,  and  five  of  his  get 
made  trotting  records  of  2:20  or  better.  Although  he  was 
a  pacing  horse  and  pacing  bred,  he  proved  extremely  pre- 
potent in  siring  trotters,  but  for  some  reason  his  progeny 
were  not  as  great  progenitors  of  speed  as  the  Hambletonian 
family. 

The  greatest  fame  of  the  Pilot  family  came  through 
Pilot  Jr.,  a  gray  horse  foaled  in  184-4  and  sired  by  Old  Pacing 
Pilot,  a  black  pacing  horse.     Pilot  Jr.  possessed  the  trotting 


§36 


MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


33 


gait  and  was  raced  a  few  times  but  he  never  showed  any 
great  speed.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  many  of  his  progeny 
lived  at  the  time  of  the  civil  war  and  were  widely  scattered, 

TABLE    III 
WORLD'S    TROTTING    RECORDS 


Name  of  Horse 


Boston 

Trouble 

Sally  Miller.  .  .  . 
Edwin  Forrest. . 

Dutchman 

Lady  Suffolk. . . 

Pelham 

Highland  Maid. 
Flora  Temple. . . 
Flora  Temple. .  . 

Dexter 

Goldsmith  Maid 
Goldsmith  Maid 

Rarus 

St.  Julien 

Maud  S 

Jay-Eye-See. . . . 

Maud  S 

Sunol 

Nancy  Hanks.  . 

Alix 

The  Abbot 

Cresceus 

Lou  Dillon 

Lou  Dillon 


Date  of  Record 


810 

826 

834 
838 

839 
845 
849 
853 
856 

859 

867 

871 

874 
878 
879 
880 
884 
885 
891 
892 

894 
900 
901 
903 
903 


Record 


2:48^ 
2:43:1 
2-37 
2:363 

2:32 

2 : 2  9  \ 

2:28 

2:27 

2:24^ 

2:194 


2:1 


/  1 


2:17 
2:14 

2:133 

2:125 

2:105 

2  :io 

2:o8f 

2:08! 

2:04 

2:033 


2:0 


5  1 


2:025 

2:00 

1:58* 


he,  perhaps,  does  not  show  as  good  a  record  as  a  breeding 
animal  as  some  other  horses.  His  best  offspring  was  the 
mare  Miss  Russell,  the  dam  of  the  famous  Nutwood  GOO  and 
Maud  S.,  who  at  one  time  held  the  world's  trotting  record. 


34 


3:. 


36 


TYPES,  BREEDS,  AXD 


36 


27.  Description. — In  Fig.  9  is  shown  Dan  Patch,  holder 
of  a  pacing  record  of  1:55$  for  the  mile,  and  in  Fig.  10,  Lou 
Dillon,  holder  of  a  trotting  record  of  L:58£  for  the  same 
distance. 

Xo  breed  of  horses  is  characterized  by  such  a  great  variation 
in  size,  conformation,  and  color,  as  the  American  Trotter. 
In  fact,  there  is  so  little  of  breed  type  found  among  these 

TABLE    IV 
WORLD'S     PACING     RECORDS 


Name  of  Horse 

Date  of  Record 

Record 

Drover 

i8;q 

228 

Fannv  Ellsler 

Unknown 

1844                              -:-72 
1844                           2:21 

Pet 

Pocahontas 

Sleep v  George 

Sleepv  Tom 

1852 

1855 
1879 

1879 
1881 
1884 
1891 
1892 
1892 
1894 
1896 

1897 

1904 
1905 

2:180 
2:17^ 
2:15$ 

2.1  2r 

Little  Brown  Jug 

Johnston 

Direct 

Hal  Pointer 

Mascot 

Robert  J 

John  R.  Gentrv 

Star  Pointer 

Prince  Alert 

Dan  Patch 

2.1  ih 
2\o6\ 
2:06 
2:05! 

2:04 

2:oii 

2:00^ 
i"-59i 

1:55! 

light-harness  horses  that  some  persons  refuse  to  recognize 
them  as  belonging  to  a  breed.  In  the  best  of  these  animals 
there  is  great  symmetry  of  form.  The  head  is  inclined  to  be 
a  little  large  and  coarse;  the  neck  rather  short,  lean,  and 
straight;  the  shoulders  sloping  and  well  laid;  the  back  and 
loin  longer  than  is  desired,  and  the  croup  short  and  some- 
what   drooping.     American    Trotters    usually    possess    deep 


§  30  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  37 

chests  indicating  stamina  and  constitution  and  usually  have 
short,  clean,  tine-boned  legs,  and  strong  feet  of  excellent 
quality.  The  action  is  quick  and  the  stride  long.  Breeders 
desire  a  weight,  in  the  case  of  stallions,  of  about  1,150  pounds 
and,  in  the  case  of  mares,  of  about  1,050  pounds.  Bay  and 
brown  are  the  most  common  colors  of  these  horses. 

28.  Speed  Records. — As  the  American  Trotter  has  been 
preeminently  a  speed  animal  since  the  inception  of  the  breed, 
many  notable  records  have  been  made.  In  Table  III  is  given 
the  world's  trotting  records  for  1  mile  from  the  year  L810 
to  1911.  Table  IV  gives  the  world's  pacing  records  from 
1839  to  1911. 

29.  Registration. — The  American  Trotter  register  was 
first  published  by  J.  H.  Wallace  and  appeared  under  the  name 
of  Wallace's  American  Trotting  Register.  In  1S76,  an  organ- 
ization known  as  the  National  Association  of  Trotting  Horse 
Breeders  was  organized.  Finally,  the  American  Trotting 
Register  Association  succeeded  the  National,  and  Wallace 
sold  his  publications  to  the  new  organization.  This  organ- 
ization has  charge  of  the  registration  of  trotting  horses  and 
publishes  the  American  Trotting  Register. 


THE    ORLOFF    TROTTER 

30.     Origin  and  Development. — The  Orloff  Trotter  breed  of 

horses  is  of  Russian  origin  and  there  are  but  few  animals  of 
the  breed  in  America.  This  breed  derives  its  name  from  that 
of  Count  Alexis  Orloff,  who,  it  is  claimed,  in  1780  made  a 
journey  to  Constantinople  as  the  emissary  of  Catherine  II  of 
Russia,  and  on  his  return  to  Russia  took  with  him,  as  a  gift 
to  the  ruler,  a  famous  Arab  stallion,  Sinetanka,  an  animal 
of  superior  merit  and  unusual  size.  This  Arab  horse  was 
-bred  to  a  Danish  mare,  from  which  came  a  male  foal  that 
was  named  Polkan.  In  time,  Polkan  was  bred  to  a  large 
Dutch  mare,  and  from  this  union  came  a  male  foal  that  was 
named  Bars  1st.  This  latter  animal  is  regarded  as  the  first 
of  the  Orloff  breed.     Although,  in  the  evolution  of  the  breed, 


38  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AXD  §  36 

outcrosses  with  mares  have  been  made,  the  line  of  descent 
from  Bars  1st  on  the  sire's  side  has  been  carefully  guarded. 
In  1S45,  the  Russian  government  purchased  the  Orloff  stud 
from  Countess  Orloff  and  now  has  charge  of  the  breeding. 

3 1 .  Description. — The  Orloff  Trotter  has  the  characteristic 
conformation  of  light-harness  horses  and  is  used  chiefly  for 
driving  purposes.  The  average  height  is  about  16  hands, 
and  the  weight  varies  considerably,  running  from  about  1,000 
to  1,300  pounds.  Gray,  white,  and  black  are  the  most 
common  colors  of  these  horses,  although  chestnut  and  bay  are 
not  uncommon.  It  is  said  that  Orloff  Trotters  are  lacking  in 
quality.  The  head  is  usually  small  and  the  face  dished.  In 
good  animals  of  the  breed,  the  neck  is  strong,  well  arched, 
and  carried  high.  The  back  is  short  and  strong,  and  the  loin 
full  and  nniscular.  The  croup  is  somewhat  sloping,  being 
commonly  criticized  in  this  respect,  but  is  heavily  muscled. 
The  shoulders  are  sloping  but  lack  heaviness  of  form.  The 
legs  are  strongly  muscled  and  the  bone  and  feet  are  regarded 
as  of  superior  quality.  In  its  native  home  the  Orloff  Trotter 
has  a  heavy  coat  of  hair  and  a  heavy  mane  and  tail.  This 
heaviness  of  hair  gives  it  a  somewhat  rough  appearance. 

32.  Registration. — The  registration  of  Orloff  Trotters  is 
conducted  by  the  Russian  government  by  means  of  the 
Record  of  the  Imperial  Horse  Breeding  Society.  There  is 
no  organization  for  the  promotion  of  the  breed  in  America. 


BREEDS    OF    THE    COACH,    OR    CARRIAGE,    TYPE 


THE     HACKNEY 

33.     Origin    and    Development. — The    Hackney    breed    of 

horses  is  indigenous  to  the  eastern  and  northeastern  parts  of 
England,  particularly  the  counties  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
York.  The  foundation  of  the  breed  dates  back  as  far  as  the 
16th  century.  The  breed  had  its  origin  in  a  mixture  of  the 
blood  of  Arabian,  Turkish,  Barb,  and  Norwegian  horses  with 


§  3G  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  39 

that  of  native  English  horses.  This  heterogeneous  foundation 
stock  was  later  improved  by  an  infusion  of  Thoroughbred 
blood.  The  Hackney  breed  was  developed  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  Thoroughbred;  but  instead  of  cultivating  the 
running  gait,  Hackney  breeders  sought  to  develop  the  trot. 
The  name  Hackney  was  derived  from  the  term  "haquence," 
signifying  a  horse  for  both  riding  and  driving. 

The  Hackney  breed,  as  is  true  in  the  case  of  most  other 
breeds  of  horses,  traces  back  to  a  famous  sire  that  proved 
very  prepotent.  In  the  case  of  the  Hackney,  this  progenitor 
was  Shales,  known  also  as  Schales,  Shields,  and  the  Original 
Shales.  This  animal  was  foaled  in  1755  and  was  sired  by 
Blaze,  a  son  of  Flying  Childers,  who  has  already  been  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  Thoroughbred  breed.  Shales 
sired  two  notable  sons,  Scot  Shales  692  and  Driver  187. 
Although  neither  of  these  animals  had  great  speed,  they  were 
prepotent  breeders  and  sired  good  stock  out  of  common  mares. 
In  17cS2,  Scot  Shales  was  esteemed  the  best  stallion  in  England 
for  the  getting  of  good  road  horses.  Driver  was  foaled  in 
1765  and  from  him  descended  many  of  the  best  Hackney 
horses  of  today.  He  sired  Jenkenson's  Fireaway  201,  and 
he  Wroot's  Pretender  596,  and  he  Steven's  Bellfounder  52, 
and  he  Bellfounder  55,  who  was  imported  to  the  United  States 
and  later  became  famous  because  of  his  influence  on  the 
American  Trotter.  Driver  became  famous  in  Hackney  breed- 
ing largely  through  the  Fireaway  family  of  his  progeny, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Phenomenon  Fireaway  585 
and  Denmark  177. 

34.  The  Hackney  in  America. — The  history  of  theHackney 
in  America  dates  back  to  1822,  when  James  Booth,  of  Boston, 
imported  from  England  Jary's  Bellfounder  55,  a  famous  horse 
that  has  already  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
American  Trotter.  In  1881,  a  valuable  consignment  of 
English  Hackneys  was  imported  by  H.  M.  Cochrane,  of 
Hillhurst,  Quebec.  This  consignment  was  headed  by  a 
superior  horse  named  Fordham,  a  son  of  the  renowned 
Denmark  177,  and  who,  when  coupled  with  the  mares  brought 


ID  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AXD  §  36 

over  with  him,  and  the  native  mares,  produced  a  large  number 
of  valuable  horses.  It  was  through  this  importation  that  the 
blood  of  Denmark  was  widely  spread  throughout  Canada, 
and  thus  Cochrane  is  given  the  credit  for  making  the  first 
real  start  toward  the  establishment  of  the  Hackney  breed  in 
America.  In  1883,  the  well-known  Hackney  stallion,  Little 
Wonder,  and  two  Hackney  mares,  Patience  and  Buttercup, 
were  imported  by  H.  J.  Cassatt,  of  Philadelphia.  These 
animals,  with  Stella,  a  chestnut  mare  by  Confidence  158, 
formed  the  first  Hackney  stud  in  the  United  States.  Little 
Wonder  was  first  exhibited  in  1883  at  the  Madison  Square 
Garden  Horse  Show,  and  although  only  14  hands  high, 
attracted  much  attention  on  account  of  his  great  power  and 
substance  and  other  meritorious  qualities.  Prescott  Lawrence 
showed  the  Hackney,  Fashion,  in  1884  at  Xew  York,  Boston, 
Philadelphia,  and  other  large  shows  and  almost  invariably 
won  prizes.  To  Little  Wonder  and  Fashion  belong  much  of 
the  credit  for  acquainting  the  American  people  with  the 
Hackney  horse  and  his  merits.  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
Xew  York,  Massachusetts,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin  are  the 
principal  breeding  centers  for  Hackneys  in  the  United  States. 

35.  Description. — In  Fig.  11  is  shown  the  famous  Hack- 
ney stallion,  Prickwillow  Connought,  a  two-time  prize  winner 
at  the  International  Livestock  Show,  held  annually  at 
Chicago.  Fig.  12  shows  the  Hackney  mare,  Hildred,  owned 
by  E.  H.  Bedford,  of  Brooklyn,  Xew  York. 

The  most  desirable  height  for  the  Hackney  is  from  15w  to 
15f  hands,  but  the  breed  shows  a  wide  variation  in  this  regard. 
Some  animals  are  less  than  14  hands  and  others  range  over 
16  hands.  In  England,  the  horses  of  this  breed  under 
14  hands  are  called  Hackney  ponies;  those  from  14  to  15  hands 
Hackney  cobs;  and  those  15  hands  and  over,  Hackney 
carriage  horses.  They  have  all  been  bred  much  alike  with 
the  exception  of  size,  which  represents  a  difference  of  the 
breeders'  ideas  as  to  what  is  most  desired  and  useful.  The 
largest  Hackney  rarely  weighs  over  1,250  pounds.  Animals 
of  this  breed  are  usually  stoutly  built,  compact,  strong  boned, 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  43 

muscular,  and  of  kindly  disposition.  The  head  is  light,  clean 
cut,  and  intelligent  in  appearance;  the  neck  is  strong,  well 
arched  and  muscular,  but  free  from  coarseness;  the  shoulders 
are  smooth  and  oblique;  the  body  is  rotund,  short,  and  com- 
pact; the  legs  are  short,  strong  boned,  and  flattish;  the  ten- 
dons are  prominent;  and  the  hoofs  are  symmetrical  and  of 
good  quality.  The  action  of  the  Hackney  is  high,  qtiick, 
elastic,  and  regular,  the  hocks  being  well  flexed.  The  com- 
mon colors  are  bay,  chestnut,  and  brown,  although  black, 
roan,  gray,  and  buckskin  occasionally  occur. 

36.  Registration. — The  English  Hackney  Horse  Society 
was  established  in  1SS3  and  pt:blished  its  first  Stud  Book 
in  18S4.  The  American  Hackney  Horse  Society  was  organ- 
ized in  1S91  and  the  first  volume  appeared  2  years  later. 
Since  that  time  only  one  other  volume  has  been  issued. 


THE  FRENCH  COACH  HORSE 

37.     Origin  and  Development. — The  French  Coach  breed 

of  horses,  as  the  name  implies,  originated  in  France.  The 
name  French  Coach,  however,  is  an  American  one,  there 
being  no  breed  of  that  name  in  France.  The  breed  known 
in  America  as  French  Coach  is  termed  in  France  the  Demi- 
Sang,  meaning  half  blood.  The  founding  of  the  French 
Coach,  or  Demi-Sang,  breed  began  as  far  back  as  the  17th 
century.  At  this  time  the  royal  haras,  or  royal  stud,  was 
established  at  Le  Pin  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  native 
breeds  by  an  infusion  of  the  blood  of  oriental  and  other 
horses.  By  order  of  Louis  XIV  importations  of  Arab,  Barb, 
and  Thoroughbred  stallions  were  made.  These  stallions  were 
carefully  selected  and  were  bred  to  the  best  mares  of  the 
old  saddle  breeds  that  existed  in  the  district  then  known  as 
Normandy.  The  first  offspring  of  this  cross  were  termed  demi- 
sang,  or  half  blood,  whence  the  name  of  the  breed.  The  blood 
of  the  Hackney  was  widely  used  in  the  subsequent  develop- 
ment of  the  breed  and  there  has  been  a  very  slight  infusion 
of  Morgan  blood.     Thus,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  foundation 


44  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §  36 

stock  was  drawn  from  a  great  variety  of  sources.  At  the 
beginning  there  was  much  experimental  breeding,  which 
resulted  in  considerable  variation  in  the  type.  Since  L840, 
French-bred  horses  have  been  used  almost  exclusively  in 
propagating  this  breed.  In  1885,  a  law  was  passed  in  France 
that  prohibited  the  use  of  stallions  not  approved  by  the 
French  government. 

One  of  the  most  famous  early  sires  in  the  improvement  of 
this  breed  was  Young  Rattler,  a  Thoroughbred.  He  was  on 
the  stand  in  Normandy  from  1S20  to  1834,  and  his  descendants 
are  so  numerous  that  his  name  is  almost  always  found  in  the 
pedigrees  of  outstanding  stallions.  His  grandson,  Voltaire, 
was  the  sire  of  Kapirat,  that  sired  Conquerant  and  Kapirat  II, 
two  horses  that  have  sired  a  great  number  of  outstanding 
good  ones,  many  of  them  famous  trotters.  Xormand,  foaled 
in  1S09,  a  descendant  of  Young  Rattler,  sired  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  stallions  of  France,  the  celebrated  Cherbourg. 
The  Heir  of  Linne,  a  Thoroughbred,  was  imported  into  the 
government  haras  in  1S59.  He  sired  Phaeton,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  sires  of  the  breed.  The  famous  stallion 
Indre  3S5,  champion  of  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago  in  1893, 
was  a  grandson  of  the  Heir  of  Linne  on  the  sire's  side. 

38.  The  French  Coach  Horse  in  America. — Large  numbers 
of  French  Coach  horses  were  imported  into  America  between 
1880  and  1890,  many  of  these  animals  coming  to  the  eastern 
states.  Those  that  were  sent  west  were  largely  taken  to 
Illinois  and  Ohio.  In  the  Middle  'West  they  have  met  with 
considerable  favor.  When  mated  with  light  American 
Trotter  or  Thoroughbred  mares,-  the  offspring  produced  are 
usually  very  marketable  horses.  Although  some  have 
developed  into  good  carriage  animals,  the  cross  has  not,  as 
a  rule,  been  wholly  satisfactory  for  carriage  purposes,  the 
offspring  lacking  the  uniformity  of  the  Demi-Sang. 

39.  Description. — In  Fig.  13  is  shown  the  noted  prize- 
winning  French  Coach  stallion,  Paladin,  owned  by  W.  S. 
Dunham,  of  Wayne,  Illinois.  The  horses  of  this  breed  are, 
on  an  average,  about   16  hands  high.     The  average  weight 


1 

^  1 

1m-  ' 

mr 

W^ 

^^A% 

. 

40  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  §30 

of  the  stallions  is  about  1,350  pounds,  and  of  the  mares  about 
1,200  pounds.  There  is,  however,  considerable  variation  in 
the  size.  French  Coach  horses  have  a  good  length  of  body; 
a  refined,  well-placed  neck;  and  a  neat  head.  The  back  is 
short,  broad,  and  well  muscled;  the  croup  is  level  and  of  good 
length;  and  the  tail  is  well  carried.  The  limbs  are  well  placed, 
of  good  shape,  and  possess  quality;  and  the  feet  and  pasterns 
are  of  superior  quality.  The  trot  of  the  French  Coach  horse 
is  not  so  snappy  and  high  as  that  of  the  Hackney,  but  the 
stride  is  longer  and  more  powerful.  Bay  and  brown  are  the 
prevailing  colors,  but  black  and  chestnut  are  not  unusual, 
and  sometimes  other  colors  occur. 

40.  Registration. — The  registration  of  French  Coach 
horses  in  America  is  conducted  by  two  organizations:  the 
French  Coach  Stud  Book  of  America,  with  headquarters  at 
Chicago,  and  the  French  Coach  Registry  Company,  with 
headquarters  at  Columbus,  Ohio.  In  France,  the  registration 
of  these  horses  is  conducted  by  the  French  Stud  Book. 


THE    GERMAN    COACH     HORSE 

41.     Origin  and  Development. — The  German  Coach  breed 

of  horses,  as  the  name  suggests,  is  a  product  of  Germany. 
Under  this  generic  term,  which  has  been  applied  by  the 
American  people  to  all  horses  coming  from  Germany,  is 
included  the  Oldenburg,  the  Hanoverian,  the  East  Friesland, 
and  the  Holstein  horses,  all  of  which  are  registered  in  separate 
stud  books  in  the  respective  provinces  in  which  they  are  bred 
and  from  which  they  receive  their  names. 

The  German  horse,  like  the  French,  is  the  result  of  breeding 
for  war  purposes  rather  than  for  the  carriage.  The  breed  is 
very  old,  and  as  much  or  more  obscurity  surrounds  its  begin- 
ning than  that  of  any  other  breed.  According  to  history, 
horse  breeding  was  carried  on  in  Germany  as  early  as  1500, 
and  Government  studs  were  established  at  various  points  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  From  a  catalog 
issued  in  1708  by  Prince  George  Albrecht,  it  appears  that  his 


§  30  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  47 

stud  contained  horses  from  Turkey,  Poland,  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  Denmark,  England,  and  Iceland;  this  shows 
the  mixed  character  of  this  early  stud,  which  probably 
represents  the  foundation  stock  of  the  German  Coach  breed. 
For  centuries  the  German  government  has  exercised  a 
supervision  of  horse  breeding  within  the  confines  of  its 
jurisdiction.  At  first  this  supervision  was  enacted  by  means 
of  royal  edicts  that  permitted  the  breeding  of  certain  animals. 
Later,  a  law  was  passed  that  prohibited  the  use  for  breeding 
purposes  of  any  stallion  that  had  not  been  inspected  by  the 
government.  At  the  present  time  both  the  government  and 
agricultural  societies  encourage  intelligent  horse  breeding. 
Prizes  are  awarded  for  animals  of  exceptional  merit,  and 
horses  so  honored  must  remain  in  the  country  for  a  specified 
time. 

42.  The  German  Coach  Horse  in  America. — German  Coach 
horses  were  first  brought  to  America  in  the  decade  between 
1880  and  1890.  Since  that  time  stallions  have  been  exten- 
sively imported  into  the  United  States,  but  mares  have  not 
been  brought  over  in  any  great  numbers ;  consequently,  there 
are  but  few  pure-bred  studs.  The  type  of  German  Coach 
horses  seen  in  this  country  possesses  considerable  variation, 
as  might  be  expected  because  of  the  failure  of  Americans  to 
differentiate  between  the  different  varieties.  It  is  claimed 
by  many  authorities  that  when  German  Coach  stallions  are 
to  be  crossed  with  the  light  American  mares,  extreme  care 
should  be  exercised  to  select  spirited  mares;  otherwise,  the 
progeny  is  likely  to  be  coarse,  too  large,  and  lacking  in 
stamina  and  spirit  and  consequently  undesirable  for  carriage 
purposes. 

43.  Description. — In  Fig.  14  is  illustrated  the  noted  German 
Coach  horse,  Hannibal,  owned  by  Crouch  &  Son,  of  Lafayette, 
Indiana.  Horses  of  this  breed  range  in  height  from  15^  to 
17  hands,  and  weigh  from  1,250  to  1,600  pounds.  The  usual 
height  is  from  10  to  10^1-  hands,  and  the  weight  from  1,300 
to  1,500  pounds.  The  Oldenburg  horses  weigh  from  about 
1,450  to  1,050  pounds.     Of  the  Hanoverian  horses  that  have 


48 


§  36  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  49 

been  imported  into  the  United  States,  the  lighter  types, 
standing  from  1(3  to  \6\  hands  high  and  weighing  from 
1,300  to  1,400  pounds,  are  the  more  popular.  The  Holstein 
horse  is  much  like  the  Hanoverian  horse,  but  instead  of  being 
used  under  the  saddle,  they  are  used  more  for  carriage  and 
general  agricultural  purposes,  due  principally  to  their  inferior 
action.  The  East  Friesland  horses  closely  resemble  the 
Oldenburgs.  The  head  of  the  German  Coacher  is  neat,  the 
neck  is  long  and  arched;  the  shoulders  are  oblique  and  well 
placed;  and  the  withers  are  prominent.  The  German  Coach 
horse  is  larger  than  the  French  Coach  horse,  the  body  being 
longer  and  heavier.  The  colors  of  the  German  Coach  horses 
are  bay,  brown,  and  black,  brown  and  bay  being  more 
prevalent  than  any  other  color. 

44.  Registration. — In  1S92,  an  organization  known  as 
the  German,  Hanoverian,  and  Oldenburg  Coach  Horse 
Association  was  organized  in  America.  Shortly  after  this 
the  Oldenburg  Coach  Horse  Association  was  incorporated. 
Both  of  these  organizations  are  in  existence  at  the  present 
time.  In  Germany,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the  breeding 
and  registration  of  these  horses  is  in  charge  of  the  government. 


THE    CLEVELAND    BAY 

45.  Origin  and  Development. — The  native  home  of  the 
Cleveland  Bay  breed  of  horses  is  in  the  Vale  of  Cleveland,  a 
region  that  comprises  the  counties  of  Durham,  Northumber- 
land, and  York,  which  lie  in  the  northeastern  part  of  England. 
The  origin  of  the  breed  is  very  obscure.  Different  assump- 
tions have  been  made  as  to  the  nature  of  the  foundation 
stock,  but  these  have  never  been  substantiated.  It  seems 
probable,  and  is  generally  believed  by  most  authorities,  that 
the  native  Cleveland  mares  were  crossed  with  Thoroughbred 
stallions  at  an  early  date  and  that  this  cross  resulted  in  the 
production  of  a  rangy  type  of  horses  that  posssessed  great 
endurance.  The  early  purpose  of  the  Cleveland  Bay  in  its 
native    land   is    recognized    as    having    been  agricultural    or 


50  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AXD  §  36 

general  utility.  However,  when  the  region  began  to  be 
developed  agriculturally  and  iron  mines  were  opened,  a 
heavier  type  of  horses  was  in  demand  and  the  Cleveland  Bay 
fell  into  disfavor  and  was  neglected.  It  now  appears  that 
in  the  course  of  time  the  breed  will  become  extinct. 

46.  The  Cleveland  Bay  in  America. — The  Cleveland  Bay 
has  never  proved  a  widely  popular  breed  in  America.  In  the 
decade  between  1SS0  and  1S90  a  considerable  number  of 
Cleveland  Bays  were  imported  and  an  organization  was 
instituted  for  the  promotion  of  the  breed,  but  the  public  has 
never  been  favorably  impressed  and  practically  all  interest 
in  the  breed  has  died  out.  Cleveland  Bays  are  now  almost 
unknown  in  American  horse  shows. 

47.  Description. — In  height,  the  Cleveland  Bay  ranges 
from  about  16  to  16f  hands,  and  weighs  from  1,200  to  1,550 
pounds.  The  bod}*  is  of  the  large  coach  type.  The  neck  is 
of  moderate  length  and  the  head  is  neat.  The  shoulders  are 
long  and  sloping ;  the  back  and  loins  short  and  broad ;  and  the 
croup  high.  These  animals  have  an  abundance  of  bone  of 
good  quality,  and  their  action  is  good,  although  by  no  means 
as  high  as  that  of  the  Hackney.  The  color  of  the  Cleveland 
Bay  horse  is  always  some  shade  of  bay,  either  light  or  dark, 
with  black  legs,  mane,  and  tail. 

48.  Registration. — The  registration  of  Cleveland  Bays 
is  looked  after  in  England  by  the  Cleveland  Bay  Horse 
Society.  In  America,  the  Cleveland  Bay  Horse  Society  of 
America,  which  was  organized  in  1SS5,  has  charge  of  the 
registrations. 

THE    YORKSHIRE     COACH     HOR>K 

49.  The  Yorkshire  Coach  breed  is  recognized  as  a  distinct 
breed  in  England,  but  is  registered  in  the  same  stud  books  as 
the  Cleveland  Bay  in  the  United  States.  The  Yorkshire 
horse  is  bred  in  the  same  country  as  the  Cleveland  Bay  and  is 
permeated  with  much  the  same  blood  as  the  latter.  His 
origin  is  even  more  obscure  than  that  of  the  Cleveland  Bay. 


§  3G  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  51 

The  Yorkshire  Coach  horse  is  not  so  heavy  as  the  Cleveland 
Bay  but  is  a  little  taller,  often  standing  17  hands  high.  He  is 
finer  in  bone,  with  more  quality  and  refinement  about  the 
limbs,  head,  and  neck,  and  is  also  a  little  more  snappy  in  his 
action.  In  the  best  animals,  the  color  is  bay  or  brown,  with 
black  eyes;  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  mane  and  tail.  The 
Yorkshire,  as  is  true  of  the  Cleveland  Bay,  has  only  a  small 
following  in  England,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  breed 
will  ever  become  prominent  in  the  United  States.  In  Eng- 
land, the  registration  of  Yorkshire  Coach  horses  is  conducted 
by  the  Coach  Horse  Society. 


TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET 
CLASSES  OF  HORSES 

(PART  2) 


BREEDS    OF    HORSES— (Continued) 


BREEDS   OF  THE  DRAFT  TYPE 


THE    PERCHERON 

1.  Origin  and  Development. — The  native  home  of  the 
Percheron  breed  of  horses  is  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
France,  in  the  district  of  La  Perche,  from  which  the  breed 
derives  its  name.  The  country  is  uneven  and  hilly,  and  is 
cut  up  in  every  direction  by  small  valleys  that  are  fertile  and 
furnish  an  abundance  of  grass.  The  origin  of  the  breed  is 
very  obscure.  For.  many  centuries  horses  of  a  draft  type 
were  in  existence  in  the  vicinity  of  La  Perche  and  these,  it  is 
believed,  constituted  the  foundation  stock  of  the  Percheron 
breed.  According  to  most  authorities,  these  native  horses 
were  crossed  with  oriental  horses  that  came  into  France  at 
the  time  of  the  Saracen  invasion  in  the  8th  century.  Arabian 
blood  was  extensively  used  in  the  improvement  of  the  breed 
as  late  as  1820,  when  two  noted  Arabian  stallions,  Godolphin 
and  Gallipoli,  were  imported  and  freely  used  on  the  French 
stock.     Most  of  the  present-day  Percherons  trace  to  Gallipoli. 

When  the  government  studs  were  established  at  Le  Pin 
and  Pompadour  in   the   18th  century  the  breeding  of  horses 

COPYRIGHTED    BY    INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK    COMPANY.        ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

§36 


54  TYPES.  BREEDS.  AND  MARKET  §36 

received  a  great  impetus.  The  systematic  breeding  of  Per- 
cherons  along  definite  lines,  however,  did  not  begin  until 
about  the  decade  between  18G0  and  1870.  At  the  present 
time,  the  French  government  is  active  in  fostering  the  inter. 
of  native  horses.  Government  studs  are  maintained  in  which 
select  animals  are  kept  for  breeding  purposes.  In  the  a 
of  privately  owned  stallions,  a  severe  inspection  is  made  by 
government  veterinarians  and  if  the  animals  are  found  to  be 
of  sufficient  merit  they  are  designated  as  subsidized,  and  a 
cash  bonus  is  paid  to  the  owner  for  keeping  them  in  the  country. 
Horses  that  are  not  quite  good  enough  to  be  subsidized  are 
designated  as  authorized,  and  the  owners  are  given  a  certificate. 
which  is,  in  substance,  a  government  recommendation.  There 
is  a  third  class  known  as  approved,  the  animals  of  which  are 
permitted  to  be  in  service  but  neither  a  bonus  nor  a  certificate 
is  given  for  them.  All  stallions  not  coming  within  these  classes 
are  excluded  from  public  service.  This  system  of  government 
supervision,  which  has  obtained  in  France  for  several  years. 
has  proved  very  beneficial  to  the  Percheron  and  other  native 
breeds. 

2.  The  Percheron  in  America. — The  first  importation  of 
Percheron  horses  into  America  of  which  there  is  any  positive 
knowledge  was  made  about  1839  to  Moorestown.  Xew  Jersey, 
by  Edward  Harris.  Two  of  the  animals  imported  by  Mr. 
Harris  were  Diligence  and  Bonaparte.  These  animals  were 
small  in  size,  standing  about  15  hands  high  and  weighing  about 
1,500  pounds.  In  1851  ~the  stallion  Louis  Napoleon  was 
imported  into  Ohio.  This  horse  proved  to  be  a  great  breeder, 
and,  it  is  claimed,  was  one  of  the  best  draft  horses  ever 
brought  to  America.  It  is  said  that  over  400  of  his  sons 
were  successful  breeding  animals.  The  Massachusetts  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture  imported  several  stallions 
and  two  mares  in  1864  and  made  a  second  importation  in  1882. 
It  is  said  that  some  of  the  horses  of  the  second  importation 
weighed  as  much  as  2.200  pounds.  W.  T.  Walters,  of  Balti- 
more, Maryland,  made  an  importation  of  both  stallions  and 
mares  in  186(5,  and  several  other  importations  in  later  years. 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


55 


He  always  imported  more  mares  than  stallions,  and  was  the 
first  to  establish  an  important  breeding  stud  of  Pereherons  in 
America.  Of  the  later  importers,  mention  should  be  made 
of  Mark  W.  Dunham  and  Daniel  Dunham,  of  Wayne,  Illinois; 
Ezra  Stetson,  of  Neponset,  Illinois;  the  Stubblefields,  of 
Bloomington,  Illinois;  the  Dillon  Brothers,  of  Normal,  Illinois; 
John  Huston,  of  Blandinsville,  Illinois;  and  the  Fullingtons' 
of  Ohio. 

The  Pcrcheron  breed  has  proved  very  popular  in  America 
and  may  be  said  to  be  increasing  in  public  favor.  Pereherons 
have  crossed  extremely  well  with  native  American  marcs, 
imparting  quality  and  size  and  producing  marketable  horses. 

Due  to  their  being  clean-limbed,  free  from  superfluous  hair, 
and  of  good  disposition,  they  have  always  been  great  favorites 
with  the  American  farmers,  and  users  of  heavy  horses  in  cities 
show  decided  preference  for  grade  Pereherons.  In  the  United 
States  the  number  of  recorded  Pereherons  is  greater  than  the 
number  of  recorded  horses  of  all  the  other  draft  breeds  com- 
bined, which  fact  indicates  that  the  breed  is  very  popular. 

3.  Description.— In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a  typical  Pcrcheron 
stallion,  and  in  Fig.  2  the  prize- winning  Percheron  mare 
Mouvette.  Pereherons  range  in  height  from  about  16  to 
m  hands  and  weigh  from  about  1,600  to  2,200  pounds.  An 
average  weight  for  a  Percheron  stallion  in  good  condition  is 
from  1,900  to  2,000  pounds.  The  Pereherons  are  not  quite 
so  heavy  as  the  Belgians  or  the  heaviest  Shires,  but  they 
weigh  more  than  the  Clydesdales  or  the  SufTolks.  The  Pcr- 
cheron has  a  deep,  thick,  compact  body  on  rather  short  legs, 
which  are  devoid  of  the  long  hair  characteristic  of  the  Clydes- 
dale and  the  Shire.  The  head  is  neat  and  refined,  of  good 
width  between  the  eyes  and  the  jaws,  and  tapers  to  a  refined 
muzzle;  the  forehead  is  broad  and  full,  indicating  intelligence; 
and  the  ears  are  small,  pointed,  and  carried  erect.  The  neck- 
is  of  moderate  length,  rather  arched,  and  is  usually  set  well 
on  the  shoulders,  giving  poise  and  dignity  to  the  head;  the 
crest  is  not  so  heavy  as  that  of  the  Belgian,  but  it  is  well  devel- 
oped.    The    shoulders    are    long    and    usually    obliquely    set; 

243—29 


56 


58  TYPES,  BREEDS.  AND  MARKET  §36 

the  back  is  short  and  often  a  little  low;  and  the  chest  is  deep 
and  broad,  indicating  a  hardy  constitution.  The  coupling  is 
not  always  as  short  as  it  should  be,  and  the  last  ribs  are  fre- 
quently not  well  sprung.  The  hips  are  high  and  often  appear 
prominent,  due  to  the  lack  of  spring  to  the  last  ribs.  The 
croup  is  of  moderate  length  and  frequently  more  drooping 
than  is  desired;  it  is  often  rather  flat  on  top.  In  many  Per- 
cherons,  the  tail  is  set  somewhat  low  and  the  hind  legs  are 
not  always  set  on  in  the  best  way.  The  thighs  and  quarters 
are  usually  heavily  muscled,  indicating  power;  and  the  feet 
are  of  the  best  quality;  in  the  latter  respect  the  Percheron 
excels  all  the  other  draft  breeds.  The  hocks  are  not  always 
as  clean  as  they  should  be;  they  are  better  than  those  of  the 
Belgian,  but  not  so  good  as  those  of  the  Clydesdale.  The 
cannons  of  the  Percheron  are  not  so  flat  as  those  of  the  Clydes- 
dale or  the  Shire,  the  tendons  not  standing  back  from  the 
cannon  bones  as  well  as  they  should. 

In  action,  the  Percheron  is  quick  and  energetic,  exhibiting 
considerable  snap.  Percherons  are  good  walkers  but  have 
a  shorter  stride  than  either  the  Clydesdales  or  the  Shires. 
The  trot  is  performed  with  vim  and  energy,  and  the  knees  and 
hocks  are  usually  flexed  well  when  carried  forwards.  Gray  and 
black  are  the  predominating  colors,  although  occasionally  bay, 
brown,  and  chestnut  occur.  The  Percheron  has  a  sanguine 
temperament,  and  an  amiable  disposition,  in  these  respects 
being  the  best  of  all  the  draft  breeds. 

4.  Registration. — The  registration  of  Percheron  horses  in 
America  has  been  the  cause  of  much  controversy.  This 
unfortunate  condition  of  affairs  resulted  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  early  history  of  the  breed  in  America  two  types  of  draft 
horses  were  imported  from  France,  namely,  the  Percheron  and 
the  Norman.  These  two  types  were  much  alike  in  every 
way  and  at  one  time  animals  of  both  were  registered  in  the 
same  stud  book  in  America.  In  1876  the  Norman  Horse 
Society  was  organized.  Later  the  name  of  this  organization 
was  changed  to  the  Percheron  Norman  Horse  Association, 
and  it  was  under  this  title  that  the  first  stud  book  was  pub- 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  59 

lished  in  1878.  This  change  in  name  antagonized  some  of 
the  members  of  the  association,  who  withdrew  and  organized 
the  National  Register  of  Norman  Horses,  which  was  later 
changed  to  the  National  Register  of  French  Draft  Horses. 
When  a  Pcrcheron  society  was  organized  in  France,  the  word 
Norman  was  stricken  from  the  title  of  the  Pcrcheron  Norman 
Horse  Association. 

The  American  Pcrcheron  Horse  Breeders'  Association  made 
an  attempt  to  incorporate  in  1885,  but  failed.  The  career  of 
this  organization  proved  rather  unsatisfactory,  and  in  con- 
sequence a  new  association,  the  American  Percheron  Horse 
Breeders  and  Importers'  Association,  was  organized.  In  1905 
the  name  of  this  organization  was  changed  to  the  Percheron 
Society  of  America.  An  association  known  as  the  Percheron 
Registry  Company  was  organized  in  1902.  In  1911  the 
Percheron  Society  of  America  purchased  all  the  records  of  the 
Percheron  Register  Company,  so  that  now  the  latter  asso- 
ciation is  no  longer  in  existence.  In  1905  another  association, 
known  as  the  American  Breeders  and  Importers'  Percheron 
Registry,  was  incorporated. 

A  Percheron  society  was  organized  in  France  in  1878.  The 
rules  of  the  French  society  provide  that  only  horses  bred  in 
the  Percheron  district  can  be  recorded  in  the  French  stud 
book.  Should  a  Percheron  mare  and  a  Percheron  stallion  be 
taken  outside  of  the  Percheron  district  and  mated  together, 
the  progeny,  according  to  the  rules,  would  not  be  eligible  for 
registration.  Since  1890  the  rules  also  stipulate  that  all  colts 
must  be  registered  between  3  and  6  months  of  age,  at  which 
time  they  are  inspected  by  a  veterinarian,  and,  if  accepted,  are 
branded  with  the  society's  brand,  S  P,  which  is  placed  on  the 
left  side  of  the  neck  near  the  mane,  about  midway  between  the 
head  and  the  shoulder.  These  rules  were  adopted  with  the 
idea  of  protecting  the  purity  of  the  breed ;  however,  it  is  claimed 
by  American  importers  that  horses  outside  of  the  Percheron 
district  are  frequently  recorded  and  branded  as  pure-bred 
Percherons.  Inasmuch  as  all  of  the  draft  horses  of  France  are 
of  much  the  same  blood,  the  Pcrcheron  breed  could  not  have 
suffered  greatly  from  this  alleged  mixing. 


60  TYPES,  BREEDS.  AND  MARKET  §36 

THE    FRENCH    DRAFT 

5.  It  is  necessary  to  speak  of  the  so-called  French  Draft 
breed  of  horses  because  of  the  fact  that  in  America  it  has  been 
the  erroneous  custom  for  many  years  to  refer  to  all  draft  horses 
imported  from  France  as  French  Draft  horses  and  as  of  the 
French  Draft  breed.  This  practice  has  been  encouraged  1  y 
the  organization  of  an  association  in  the  United  States  that 
registers  draft  horses  from  France,  irrespective  of  breed,  in  a 
French  Draft  stud  book.  Notwithstanding  the  common  use 
of  the  term  French  Draft,  there  is  no  recognized  breed  of  this 
name.  In  France  there  are  several  breeds  of  draft  horses,  and 
when  the  first  importations  of  animals  of  these  breeds  were 
made  to  America  no  differentiation  was  made  between  them, 
all  being  known  as  French  Draft  horses.  The  name  thus 
applied  has  clung  to  all  such  animals  even  to  this  day,  in 
America. 

It  is  probable  that  all  the  draft  horses  that  are  imported  to 
America  from  France  can  properly  be  listed  as  belonging  to 
the  following  breeds:  Percheron,  Bonlonais,  Breton,  Nivernais, 
Ardennais,  and  Picardy. 

The  Percheron  breed  is  the  best  known  and  the  best  devel- 
oped of  the  French  draft  breeds.  It  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed. 

The  Boulonais  breed  is  found  largely  in  the  district  of 
Boulogne  in  the  northern  part  of  France,  not  far  from  Belgium. 
The  animals  of  this  breed  are  larger  and  coarser  than  the  Per- 
cherons,  and  very  likely  possess  more  Belgian  than  Percheron 
blood.  Gray  is  the  prevailing  color,  although  some  of  the 
horses  are  bay.  It  has  been  claimed  by  the  French  breeders 
that  there  has  been  no  interchange  of  horses  between  the 
Boulonais  and  the  Percheron  districts,  but  this  claim  is  doubted 
by  many  authorities. 

The  Breton  breed  is  found  in  Brittany,  a  section  of  France 
lying  across  the  English  Channel  from  England.  It  is  not 
probable  that  many  Breton  horses  have  ever  been  brought  to 
America,  although  it  is  said  that  many  of  them  are  sold  in  Paris 
as  Normandy  and  Percheron  horses. 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  61 

The  Nivernais  breed  is  from  the  district  of  Nievre,  in  the 
central  part  of  France.  Most  of  the  Nivernais  are  black  in 
color,  as  a  result  of  using  black  Percheron  stallions  on  the  mares 
in  that  region.  The  horses  of  this  breed  are  smaller  than  the 
Percherons.  It  is  said  that  not  many  of  them  have  been 
imported  into  the  United  States;  however,  this  fact  is  ques- 
tioned by  authorities  familiar  with  the  breed.  The  Nivernais 
arc  built  much  after  the  Percheron  type. 

The  Ardennais  breed  is  native  to  Ardennes,  in  the  northern 
part  of  France,  near  Belgium.  There  are  two  types  of  Arden- 
nais horses;  those  of  one  type  are  blocky  and  smaller  than  those 
of  any  of  the  other  French  draft  horses;  those  of  the  other  are 
of  a  coach  type. 

The  Picardy  breed  is  found  in  the  northern  part  of  France 
and  in  Belgium.  Some  authorities  claim  that  the  Picardy  is  a 
variety  of  the  Boulonais.  The  horses  of  this  breed  are  gener- 
ally bay  in  color. 

The  National  French  Draft  Horse  Association  of  America 
publishes  a  stud  book  in  which  may  be  registered  animals  of 
any  of  the  French  draft  breeds. 


THE    CLYDESDALE 

6.     Origin   and   Development. — The    Clydesdale   breed   of 

horses  originated  in  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Lanark,  com- 
monly called  the  Clydesdale  district.  Heavy,  black  Flemish 
stallions  were  used  in  the  early  development  of  the  breed, 
authentic  records  showing  that  such  horses  were  employed  as 
early  as  1715.  Ever  since  that  time  much  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  breed  and  the  preservation  of 
purity  of  blood.  So  carefully  have  Clydesdale  horses  been 
selected  for  breeding  and  so  honestly  have  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  pedigree  been  conducted,  that  the  purity  of  blood  of 
recorded  animals  of  the  breed  is  beyond  question. 

Two  noted  Clydesdale  stallions  whose  influence  on  their 
progeny  is  noticeable  even  to  the  present  time  were  Prince  of 
Wales  673,  and  Darnley  222.  Darnley's  three  best  sons  were 
Macgreggor   1,487,   Flashwood  3,604,   and  Topgallant    1,850. 


G4  TYPES,  BREEDS.  AND  MARKET  §  36 

The  most  famous  Clydesdale  stallion  of  recent  times  is  Baron's 
Pride  9.122.  sired  by  Sir  Everard  5.353.  a  son  of  Topgallant  1,850 
and  a  grandson  of  Darnley  222. 

7.  The  Clydesdale  in  America. — The  first  importations  of 
Clydesdales  to  America  were  made  into  Canada,  perhaps 
because  this  section  was  settled  by  Britishers,  who  naturally 
preferred  horses  from  their  own  country.  About  1870,  the 
first  Clydesdales  were  brought  to  the  United  States,  some  of 
them  coming  from  Canada  and  others  from  Scotland.  The 
first  show  in  America  was  held  at  Toronto  in  1846. 

In  America,  the  breeding  of  Clydesdales  has  not  kept  pace, 
in  the  past  ,few  years,  with  that  of  horses  of  other  breeds,  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  they  will  ever  become  widely  popular 
in  this  country,  unless  they  are  bred  more  nearly  to  the  type  of 
the  American  draft  horse,  less  attention  being  given  to  action 
and  more  to  the  conformation  of  body  and  the  securing  of 
weight . 

8.  Description. — In  Fig.  3  is  illustrated  an  American  type 
of  Clydesdale  stallion  and  in  Fig.  4  a  Scotch  type. 

Clydesdales  commonly  range  in  height  from  16  to  17  hands, 
and  weigh  from  about  1,800  to  2,000  pounds.  In  the  best 
animals  the  head  is  of  good  shape;  the  shoulders  are  rather 
oblique ;  and  the  chest  is  somewhat  narrower  than  in  animals  of 
the  other  draft  breeds.  The  body  of  the  Clydesdale  is  criti- 
cized by  many  competent  judges,  who  assert  that  it  is  lacking 
in  depth  and  circumference.  The  feet,  bone,  and  action  are 
cardinal  points  with  Clydesdale  breeders,  and  in  these  respects 
animals  of  the  breed  are  superior.  A  prominent  characteristic 
of  Clydesdale  horses  is  the  long.  fine,  silky  hair,  commonly 
termed  feather,  which  grows  out  from  the  backs  of  the  cannons 
and  from  the  coronets. 

In  the  early  days  a  few  of  the  Clydesdales  were  black,  a  few 
were  gray,  and  a  few  were  chestnut,  but  the  Highland  Agri- 
cultural Society,  which  held  its  first  show  at  Glasgow  in  1S27. 
made  it  a  rule  that  only  bays  and  browns  should  be  allowed  to 
compete  for  prizes.  This  checked  the  production  of  blacks  and 
grays,  which  were  rather  common  in  the  country  at  that  time. 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  65 

Gray   Clydesdales   arc   still   unpopular,    and   some   authorities 
think  that  a  chestnut  color  indicates  Shire  blood. 

9.  Registration.— The  Clydesdale  Society  of  Great  Britain 
was  organized  about  1877,  and  the  first  stud  book  was  published 
in  1878.  The  registration  in  the  first  volume  covers  a  period 
of  about  50  years,  and  most  of  the  animals  were  owned  in  the 
Clydesdale  district.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  Clydesdale 
Society  has  published  32  volumes  and  has  registered  about 
40,000  animals.  The  American  Clydesdale  Association  was 
organized  in  1879,  and  the  first  stud  book  was  published  in 
1882.  Fourteen  volumes  have  been  issued,  with  a  total  regis- 
tration of  about  14,000  animals. 


THE    SHIRE 

10.  Origin  and  Development.— The  Shire  breed  of  horses 
is  a  product  of  England,  having  been  developed  principally  in 
the  counties  of  Oxford,  Leicester,  Stafford,  Derby,  Notting- 
ham, Northampton,  Lincoln,  and  Cambridge.  This  breed  is 
the  result  of  crossing  imported  horses  from  Flanders  and 
Northern  Germany  on  the  native  stock  of  England.  The  breed 
is  very  old  and  has  been  carefully  bred  since  its  origin.  Much 
of  the  credit  for  the  early  improvement  of  the  breed  belongs  to 
English  tenant  farmers,  who  persevered  in  breeding  and  improv- 
ing the  Shire  in  times  of  depression.  Later,  some  of  the  nobility 
established  studs  and  a  number  of  the  more  finely  bred  animals 
of  certain  families  sold  for  high  prices.  Some  authorities  have 
questioned  whether  this  was  an  advantage  to  the  breed,  as  it 
took  away  from  the  tenant  farmer  animals  that  he  could  not 
afford  to  own.  One  of  the  most  potent  factors  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Shire  horse  was  the  Shire  Horse  Show,  which  was 
established  in  1879  as  an  annual  event.  This  show  is  held  each 
year  at  London,  and  all  the  horses  exhibited  are  required  to 
undergo  a  careful  veterinary  examination. 

The  aim  of  Shire  breeders  in  Great  Britain  has  been  to  main- 
tain or  increase  the  size  and  substance  and  improve  the  quality 
of  their  horses  as  much  as  possible.     In  order  to  do  this  thev 


68  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  §36 

select  those  with  a  profuse  growth  of  hair  on  the  limbs,  this 
being  considered  evidence  of  quality,  substance,  and  rugged- 
ness.  American  breeders  doubt  the  wisdom  of  this  practice, 
and  it  is  regarded  as  certain  that  profuse  feather  will  never 
become  popular  in  America,  as  it  is  a  frequent  source  of  erup- 
tions and  skin  disease,  as  well  as  of  much  trouble  and  annoy- 
ance. Although  much  has  been  done  to  improve  the  quality 
of  the  Shire's  hocks,  some  of  them  still  lack  width,  and  are 
short  and  not  well  defined. 

11.  The  Shire  in  America. —  The  importation  of  Shire 
horses  into  America  began,  it  is  believed,  about  the  middle 
of  the  19th  century.  In  1853,  a  Shire  named  John  Bull  was 
imported  and  taken  to  Aurora,  Illinois,  where  he  became  favor- 
ably known  as  a  sire.  A  few  years  later  a  second  John  Bull 
was  imported  to  Bristol,  Illinois.  For  a  time  the  Shires  were 
spoken  of  as  "John  Bulls."  George  E.  Brown,  of  Aurora, 
Illinois,  an  extensive  importer,  made  his  first  importation  in 
1874.     From  this  time  on  importations  became  more  numerous. 

One  of  the  most  famous  early  Shire  horses  imported  to  the 
United  States  was  Holland  Major  275.  He  was  imported  as 
a  2-year-old  by  George  E.  Brown  in  1882,  and  was  a  champion 
at  the  World's  Fair  held  at  Chicago  in  1893.  He  lived  to  be 
25  years  old  and  proved  to  be  an  exceptionally  good  breeder 
of  high-class  horses. 

12.  Description. — In  Fig.  5  is  shown  the  noted  Shire  stal- 
lion Prem  Victor,  which  is  an  English  horse  but  of  the 
American  type.  Fig.  6  shows  Glen  Royal,  an  English  type  of 
Shire. 

Shire  stallions  range  in  height  from  16  to  17^  hands  and  weigh 
from  about  1,800  to  2,400  pounds.  The  head,  in  many  animals 
of  the  breed  is  inclined  to  be  a  little  plain,  not  having  as  much 
width  across  the  forehead  and  through  the  jaws  as  desired,  and 
there  is  also  a  little  coarseness  in  the  muzzle.  The  face  is 
inclined  to  be  a  little  Roman,  which,  when  only  slight,  is  not 
objected  to  by  admirers  of  the  breed.  The  ears  are  rather  long 
and  heavy,  more  so  than  in  animals  of  some  of  the  other  breeds, 
and   the  neck   is  plain,  frequently  lacking    in    crest  develop- 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  69 

mcnt.  The  shoulders  are  massive  and  powerful.  The  back  is 
of  moderate  length  and  the  croup  of  fair  length,  although  not 
so  level  as  that  of  the  Clydesdale.  The  Shire  is  inclined  to  be 
a  little  plain  over  the  hips  and  a  little  too  short  and  straight  in 
the  pasterns.  The  feet  are  inclined  to  be  small  and  too  fiat, 
lacking  height  at  the  heel,  and  also  brittle,  especially  feet  of  a 
white  color.  As  a  rule,  animals  of  the  breed  possess  an  abund- 
ance of  bone.  A  deep  chest  and  heavily  muscled  shoulders, 
thighs,  and  quarters,  giving  the  appearance  of  strength  and 
power,  are  characteristic  of  the  breed.  Shire  horses  have  a 
profuse  growth  of  feather  coming  out  from  the  cannons;  often 
the  feather  is  not  as  fine  and  silky  as  is  desired. 

Horses  of  the  Shire  breed  are  usually  of  a  bay  or  brown 
color,  although  black,  gray,  and  occasionally  chestnut  occurs. 
As  a  rule,  they  have  white  faces,  the  white  extending  from  the 
forehead  to  the  muzzle,  and  one  or  more  white  feet  and  legs, 
the  white  extending  to  the  knee  or  hock,  and  occasionally 
higher. 

The  Shire  is  usually  a  good  walker,  having  a  long,  open 
stride,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  action  is  fairly  straight.  Although 
the  Shire  has  been  much  improved  in  action,  he  is  still  a  little 
sluggish,  which  is  especially  noticeable  in  trotting  and  turning. 
In  the  United  States  the  Shire  has  been  used  more  extensively 
on  the  level  lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  than  elsewhere. 
Shire  stallions  make  an  excellent  cross  for  mares  of  moderate 
size  with  an  abundance  of  quality  but  lacking  in  substance. 

13.  Registration.— The  registration  of  Shire  horses  in 
Great  Britain  is  conducted  by  the  Shire  Horse  Society,  for- 
merly the  English  Cart  Horse  Society.  In  America  the  regis- 
tration is  in  charge  of  the  American  Shire  Horse  Breeders' 
Association. 

There  have  been  published  six  volumes  of  the  American 
Shire  Horse  Stud  Book  and  twenty-nine  volumes  of  the  English 
Shire  Horse  Stud  Book,  which  shows,  in  a  relative  way,  that  the 
Shires  are  not  extremely  popular  in  the  United  States. 


"1 

243—30 


72  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  §  36 


THE    BELOIAN 

14.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Belgian  breed  of  horses, 
as  the  name  implies,  is  a  product  of  Belgium.  The  modern 
Belgian  horse  is  a  direct  descendant  of  the  black  Flemish  horse, 
which  has  been  influential  in  improving  all  of  the  draft  breeds. 
Horse  breeding  has  long  been  an  important  industry  in  Belgium, 
having  been  practiced  at  first  for  the  production  of  war  horses 
and  later  for  the  production  of  horses  for  agricultural  purposes. 
In  1850  the  government  established  a  stud  at  Tervueren  for 
the  improvement  of  draft  horses,  and  in  1886  the  official 
draft  horse  society  of  Belgium,  Le  Cheval  de  trait  Beige,  was 
organized.  Since  the  latter  date  the  Belgian  government  has 
promoted  horse  breeding  by  making  annual  grants,  or  sub- 
sidies, to  the  society.  The  society  organized  and  holds  annual 
summer  shows  at  Brussels,  which  attract  visitors  and  buyers 
from  all  over  the  world.  It  has  a  membership  of  about  1,400 
breeders  and  up  to  the  present  time  has  registered  more  than 
58,000  stallions  and  72,000  mares.  The  society  registers 
about  10,000  horses  annually,  but  does  not  give  numbers  to 
the  stallions  until  they  are  3  years  old;  a  number  is  not  given 
to  a  mare  until  she  has  produced  a  foal.  Stallions  are  given 
even  numbers  and  mares  odd  numbers.  From  the  preceding 
figures  it  will  be  seen  that  the  condition  in  Belgium  is  alto- 
gether different  than  in  the  United  States,  the  number  of 
mares  registered  in  Belgium  greatly  exceeding  that  of  the 
stallions. 

15.  The  Belgian  in  America. — Dr.  A.  G.  Van  Hoorebeke, 
of  Monmouth,  Illinois,  made  an  importation  of  Belgians 
to  America  in  1866;  this  is  said  to  have  been  the  first.  At 
that  time  the  Belgian  horses  were  designated  as  Boulonais. 
Mr.  E.  Leferbure,  of  Fairfax,  Iowa,  began  importing  Belgians 
in  1888  and  continued  until  1905.  A  number  of  small  importa- 
tions were  made  about  the  same  time  that  Mr.  Leferbure  began 
importing,  but  it  was  not  until  about  1900  that  any  great 
number  were  brought  to  the  United  States.  Only  a  compara- 
tively few  pure-bred  Belgian  mares  have  ever  been  imported 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  73 

16.  Description. — Fig.  7  shows  a  typical  Belgian  stallion. 
Fig.  8  shows  a  group  of  prize-winning  Belgian  stallions  owned 
by  Dunham  &  Fletcher,  of  Wayne,  Illinois. 

The  Belgian  is  the  heaviest  of  all  draft  horses.  The  stallions 
range  in  height  from  16  to  17  hands  and  vary  in  weight  from 
1,800  to  2,500  pounds.  The  mares,  of  course,  are  considerably 
lighter  in  weight  than  the  stallions,  but  are  heavy  in  comparison 
with  mares  of  the  other  draft  breeds. 

The  characters  that  distinguish  the  Belgian  draft  horse  from 
the  horses  of  other  draft  breeds  are  the  deep,  thick  body  and 
short  legs,  which  arc  free  from  long  hair.  The  Belgian  horse 
possesses  a  hardy  constitution  and  is  a  good  feeder  on  coarse 
feeds.  He  lacks  the  levelness  of  top  that  is  desired,  many 
animals  of  the  breed  being  low  in  the  back,  rising  rather  high 
on  top  of  the  hips,  and  being  rather  short  and  drooping  in  the 
croup.  The  neck  of  the  Belgian  is  short  and  thick  and  has  a 
heavy  crest  that  extends  to  the  poll.  In  many  cases  the  head 
is  short  and  narrow  from  the  eyes  to  the  top  of  the  poll,  and 
long  and  coarse  from  the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  muzzle ;  in  some 
cases  the  head  is  badly  placed  on  the  neck,  and  the  ears  are  set 
wide  apart  and  low,  making  it  difficult  for  a  bridle  or  halter  to 
be  kept  on.  The  legs  of  the  Belgian  are  short  and  have  mod- 
erately heavy  bone,  but  lack  the  flatness  of  cannon  that  is 
found  in  the  Clydesdale  and  the  Shire.  The  pasterns,  in  many 
instances,  are  a  little  short  and  upright,  and  the  feet  are  small, 
having  much  the  shape,  of  the  feet  of  a  mule.  The  under  line 
is  not  so  straight  as  in  animals  of  the  other  draft  breeds  on 
account  of  the  big,  poddy  middles.  In  some  cases  the  hind 
legs  are  bent  too  much  at  the  hocks,  forming  what  is  called  a 
sickle  hock.  Perhaps  the  most  severe  criticisms  that  are  made 
of  the  Belgian  horse  by  unprejudiced  and  competent  judges 
arc:  the  smallness  of  the  feet,  the  badly  set  pasterns,  the  poor 
shape  of  the  hock,  and  the  lack  of  levelness  of  top  line;  how- 
ever, all  of  these  faults  are  being  rapidly  improved  by  modern 
breeders. 

In  action,  when  the  Belgian  goes  true  and  straight,  he  is 
usually  good  at  the  trot,  but  not  so  good  at  the  walk,  being 
slow  and  sluggish,  and  having  a  short  stride. 


74  TYPES,  BREEDS.  AND  MARKET  §36 

The  prevailing  colors  of  the  Belgians  are  chestnut,  bay, 
brown,  and  red  roan;  occasionally  black  and  infrequently  gray 
occurs,  the  latter  color,  however,  not  being  popular.  The 
Belgian  horse  has  been  described  by  many  admirers  of  the 
breed  as  being  docile  and  intelligent;  however,  many  impartial 
judges  do  not  believe  him  to  be  equal,  either  in  intelligence  or 
disposition,  to  the  Percheron. 

The  Belgian  stands  the  shipment  of  importation  better  than 
the  horses  of  any  of  the  imported  breeds  and  becomes  acclimated 
readily.  In  recent  years,  since  the  larger  and  better  stallions 
have  been  imported,  the  Belgian  has  gained  much  in  reputation 
as  the  sire  of  good  commercial  horses.  Being  good  feeders, 
such  animals  mature  comparatively  early  and  usually  go  to 
the  market  in  better  condition  than  horses  of  any  other  draft 
breed. 

17.  Registration. — In  Belgium,  the  official  draft  horse 
society.  Le  Cheval  de  trait  Beige,  looks  after  the  registration 
of  Belgian  draft  horses.  In  America,  the  American  Associa- 
tion of  Importers  and  Breeders  of  Belgian  Draft  Horses  has 
charge  of  the  registration.  The  latter  association  was  organ- 
ized in  1877  and  has  published  two  volumes  of  the  stud  book. 


THE    SUFFOLK 

18.     Origin    and    Development. — The    Suffolk    breed    of 

horses,  sometimes  known  as  the  Suffolk  Punch  breed,  is  indig- 
enous to  Suffolk  County,  in  the  eastern  part  of  England.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  Suffolk  horses  in  Essex  and  other  counties 
of  Eastern  England.  The  true  foundation  of  the  breed  dates 
back  to  a  horse  foaled  in  1768,  known  as  the  Crisp  horse,  from 
the  name  of  its  owner,  a  Mr.  Crisp,  of  Ufford,  Sussex.  To  this 
horse  are  traced  all  pedigrees  of  Suffolk  horses  that  may  be 
registered  in  England  or  America.  The  Crisp  horse  was  a 
bright  chestnut  in  color,  stood  15^  hands  high,  and  proved  to 
be  a  remarkable  sire.  Since  the  time  of  the  Crisp  horse  four 
attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  foreign  blood  for  the 
improvement  of  this  breed,  but  all  have  proved  futile. 


76  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  §  36 

19.  The  Suffolk  in  America. — Suffolk  horses  were  first 
imported  to  America  about  1880.  Since  that  time  importa- 
tions have  been  infrequent  and  the  breed  has  never  become 
well  known  in  this  country.  This  is  perhaps  due  to  the  com- 
paratively small  size  of  animals  of  the  breed.  Perhaps  more 
have  been  imported  into  Iowa  than  into  other  states ;  a  few  have 
been  imported  into  Wisconsin,  and  some  into  Ohio  and  eastern 
states.  When  crossed  on  the  common  mares  of  the  country, 
the  Suffolks  usually  produce  good  farm  horses  of  quality  and 
finish  that  are  particularly  smooth,  but  with  hardly  sufficient 
size,  unless  the  dam  is  large,  to  be  called  drafters. 

20.  Description. — In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  typical  Suffolk 
stallion,  which  is  owned  by  0.  C.  Barber,  of  Barberton,  Ohio. 
Suffolk  horses  range  in  height  from  15^  to  16|  hands  high  and 
weigh  from  about  1,700  to  1,800  pounds.  The  Suffolk  is  not 
claimed  to  be  strictly  a  draft  horse,  but  is  suited  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

The  Suffolk  differs  from  the  Clydesdale  and  the  Shire  in 
that  it  is  free  from  all  long  hair  on  the  limbs.  It  has  a  neat 
head,  which  is  wide  in  the  forehead,  and  the  jaw  tapers  to  the 
muzzle.  The  neck  is  of  good  length  and  the  crest  exceptionally 
well  developed,  presenting  an  arched  appearance.  The  shoul- 
ders are  long  but  not  extremely  straight  nor  obliquely  set. 
The  back  and  loins  are  of  a  moderate  length;  the  ribs  are 
extremely  deep  and  well  sprung;  the  hips  are  not  prominent; 
and  the  croup  is  long  and  level,  in  fact,  more  so  than  in  the  case 
of  the  horse  of  any  of  the  other  draft  breeds.  The  thighs  and 
quarters  are  muscular  and  extremely  well  developed.  The 
legs,  which  are  rather  short,  are  free  from  feather,  and  appear 
to  be  a  little  light  in  bone;  however,  breeders  disclaim  this, 
stating  that  it  is  simply  because  they  are  free  from  feather. 
The  pasterns  are  of  moderate  length  and  the  feet  are  of  good 
texture,  although  at  one  time  they  were  criticized  for  being 
too  flat. 

In  color,  the  Suffolk  is  always  some  shade  of  chestnut,  cither 
light  or  dark,  the  light  being  preferred.  The  color  of  horses  of 
this  breed  is  exceptionally  uniform. 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  77 

In  quality  and  action  the  Suffolk  ranks  well.  Animals  of 
this  breed  arc  seldom  coarse,  and  in  action  they  stand  next  to 
the  Clydesdale. 

21.  Registration.— In  England,  the  Suffolk  Stud  Book 
Society  has  charge  of  registrations.  Volume  I  was  published 
in  1880,  and  up  to  the  present  time  about  sixteen  volumes  have 
been  issued.  The  American  Suffolk  Horse  Association  has 
charge  of  the  registrations  in  the  United  States,  but  no  stud 
books  have  been  issued. 

MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 

22.  As  has  been  explained  in  a  previous  Section,  the  market 
classification  of  horses  is  based  on  their  size,  conformation, 
height,  weight,  style,  and  action.  A  classification  based  on 
such  widely  variable  characters  as  these  must  necessarily  be 
somewhat  flexible,  that  is,  the  lines  of  division  between  the 
classes  must  be  more  or  less  a  matter  of  personal  opinion  and 
subject  to  change  according  to  the  market  demands  for  and  the 
supply  of  any  particular  class.  Many  animals  go  to  market 
and  help  to  supply  the  demand  that  are  not  altogether  typical 
of  the  market  class  in  which  they  are  sold.  In  attempting  to 
meet  the  market  demands,  if  there  are  not  enough  horses  of  a 
particular  type,  dealers  try  to  fill  the  demand  as  far  as  possible 
with  animals  that  are  only  partly  typical  of  the  class.  Not- 
withstanding this  indefinite  classification,  most  horsemen 
recognize  an  approved  type  for  each  market  class.  It  is  the 
purpose  to  describe,  in  the  following  pages,  these  approved 
types. 

In  Table  I  are  given  the  names  of  the  market  classes  and 
subclasses  of  horses,  and  the  height  and  weight  requirements 
for  each.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  most  cases  the  name  of  the 
class  and  subclass  is  suggestive  of  the  use  to  which  the  horses 
belonging  to  it  are  put. 

23.  Draft-Horse  Class. — The  draft -horse  class  is  composed 
of  horses  that  are  broad,  massive,  rugged,  and  compact,  and 
possess    sufficient    weight,    strength,    and    endurance    to    pull 


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§  30  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  79 

heavy  loads.  The  weight  should  come  from  size  rather  than 
an  abundance  of  fat,  although  a  good  covering  of  fat  is  desirable 
on  a  draft  horse  intended  for  market.  Strength  in  a  draft 
horse  is  usually  an  attribute  of  weight,  as  the  heavier  the 
animal  the  easier  it  is  for  it  to  move  heavy  loads.  Heavy  bone 
of  good  quality,  and  muscularity  of  limbs  is  the  best  evidence 
of  endurance.  Draft  horses  range  in  height  from  15f  to  17£ 
hands,  and  weigh  from  1,600  to  2,200  pounds  or  more.  The 
action  should  be  energetic  and  spirited,  and  the  stride  at  the 
walk  should  be  long  and  rapid. 

The  draft-horse  class  has  been  divided  into  light  draft  horses, 
heavy  draft  horses,  and  loggers,  but  the  distinction  between 
the  light  and  the  heavy  subclasses  is  rarely  made  on  the  market, 
pertaining  almost  exclusively  to  the  show  ring. 

24.  Light  draft  horses  are  from  15f  to  16|  hands  high 
and  weigh  from  1,600  to  1,750  pounds.  Although  15|  hands 
is  accepted  as  the  minimum  height  for  an  animal  of  this  sub- 
class, it  should  be  understood  that  a  horse  of  this  height  is  less 
desirable  than  one  that  is  taller,  and  that  it  closely  approaches 
the  eastern  chunk  subclass. 

25.  Heavy  draft  horses  are  the  heaviest  type  of  horses; 
they  weigh  from  1,750  to  2,200  pounds  or  more,  and  are  from 
16  to  17^  hands  high.  A  typical  specimen  of  the  heavy  draft 
subclass  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  This  animal  is  excellent  in  com- 
pactness of  body  and  smoothness  of  finish.  He  is  16 J  hands 
high  and  weighs  1,950  pounds. 

26.  Loggers  are  heavy  draft  horses  that  are  used  in  the 
lumbering  regions  for  drawing  heavy  loads  of  logs.  They 
usually  differ  from  the  heavy  draft  horses  in  being  plain,  rough, 
or  slightly  unsound  in  some  respect,  such  as  being  defective  in 
wind,  having  sidebones,  boggy  hocks,  etc.;  these  and  other 
unsoundnesses  will  be  explained  in  a  subsequent  Section. 
Occasionally,  good  horses  are  purchased  for  logging  purposes, 
but  as  a  rule  the  trade  demands  rather  cheap  animals.  A 
logger  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  hindquar- 
ters of  this  animal  are  very  plain,  the  croup  being  drooping, 


SI  i 


8] 


84  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  §  36 

the  hind  flank  cut  up  too  high,  and  the  hind  legs  crooked,  or 
sickle-hocked.  This  horse  is  16§  hands  high  and  weighs 
1,950  pounds. 

In  recent  years  the  demand  for  draft  horses  has  exceeded  the 
supply,  and,  as  a  result,  prices  for  animals  of  this  class  are  high. 

27.  Chunk  Class. — Horses  of  the  chunk  class  are  short 
legged,  broad,  and  heavy  set.  The  name  of  the  class  is  indica- 
tive of  the  conformation  of  the  animals  rather  than  of  the  use 

to  which  they  are  put.  As  a  class,  chunks  are  less  uniform  in 
type  than  the  animals  of  any  other  class.  They  vary  in 
height  from  15  to  16  hands  and  weigh  from  about  800  to  1,550 
pounds.  The  subclasses  of  the  chunk  class  are  eastern  and 
export  chunks,  farm  chunks,  and  southern  chunks. 

28.  Eastern  and  export  chunks  are  of  much  the  same  type 
and  conformation  as  draft  horses,  but  are  a  little  more  blocky 
and  compact.  They  weigh  from  1,300  to  1,550  pounds,  and 
range  in  height  from  15  to  16  hands,  although,  as  a  rule,  they 
are  not  more  than  15f  hands.  At  one  time  a  considerable 
number  were  exported,  but  in  recent  years  the  price  has  been 
too  high  to  permit  of  a  profit  in  such  business.  The  use  for 
eastern  and  export  chunks  is  pretty  much  the  same  as  that  for 
draft  horses;  they  are  largely  used  in  pairs  and  in  threes  for 
trucking  purposes.  Some  horses  of  the  eastern-chunk  type  may 
be  found  on  the  market  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  not  in 
such  great  numbers  as  during  the  spring.  They  usually  bring 
good  prices,  but  less  than  those  for  draft  horses.  Fig.  12  shows 
a  choice  animal  of  the  chunk  subclass.  The  horse  shown  is 
15|  hands  high  and  weighs  1,530  pounds. 

29.  Farm  chunks  are  an  important  item  in  the  horse  mar- 
ket, particularly  during  the  spring  months.  At  other  seasons 
they  are  usually  sold  to  supply  demands  other  than  for  farm- 
ing. Farm  chunks  are  lighter  in  bone  and  not  as  uniform  in 
type  as  eastern  chunks.  Their  lack  of  uniformity  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  farmers  are  of  varying  opinions  as  to  the 
best  type  of  horse  for  farm  use,  and  often  accept  the  commoner 
and  inferior  grades.     Some  farmers  who  do  not  wish  to  pay 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  85 

high  prices  for  farm  horses  buy  animals  that  arc  slightly  blem- 
ished or  unsound.  The  greatest  demand  is  for  animals  that 
weigh  from  1,200  to  1,400  pounds  and  arc  from  15  to  15|  hands 
high.  Mares  are  usually  preferred  to  geldings,  as  most  fanners 
want  horses  for  breeding  purposes  as  well  as  for  work.  In  the 
case  of  farm  chunks,  the  walk  is  the  most  important  gait,  but 
because  of  the  varied  work  on  a  farm,  it  is  important  that 
the  animals  be  quick  and  active,  and  be  able  to  trot  readily,  if 
necessary.  Farm  chunks  sell  readily,  as  a  rule,  but  do  not 
bring  as  high  prices  as  eastern  and  export  chunks.  Fig.  13 
shows  a  choice  farm  chunk.  This  animal  is  15J  hands  high 
and  weighs  1,400  pounds.  The  bone  is  a  trifle  light,  but 
this  character  is  often  found  in  horses  of  the  farm  chunk- 
subclass. 

30.  Southern  chunks,  or  southern  horses,  as  they  are  more 
generally  called,  are  lighter  in  bone  and  more  rangy  in  confor- 
mation than  farm  chunks,  being  from  about  15  to  15f  hands 
high  and  weighing  from  about  800  to  1,250  pounds.  They  are 
somewhat  of  the  road-horse  type,  and  usually  possess  consid- 
erable light-horse  blood.  As  in  the  case  of  farm  chunks,  marcs 
are  preferred  to  geldings,  and  good  action  is  even  more  desired 
than  in  farm  chunks.  Southern  chunks  are  taken  to  the  south- 
ern states  where  they  are  largely  used  for  agricultural  purposes. 
The  trade  in  this  subclass  begins  in  the  autumn  and  is  best 
during  the  winter.  Southern  chunks  are  in  less  demand  and 
bring  lower  prices  than  farm  chunks.  A  good  specimen  of  the 
Southern  chunk  subclass  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  This  mare  has 
excellent  quality  and  finish,  but  might  be  a  little  lower  in  the 
hind  flank.  She  is  15|  hands  high  and  weighs  about  1,150 
pounds. 

31.  Wagon-Horse  Class. — Animals  of  the  wagon-horse 
class  are  used  principally  for  the  pulling  of  light  wagons,  such 
as  delivery  and  express  wagons,  on  city  streets.  Horses  of 
good  action  arc  required  for  this  purpose,  as  they  are  required 
to  do  their  work  at  a  fairly  rapid  gait.  In  order  to  stand  the 
work,  a  wagon  horse  must  have  a  good  constitution,  and  it  is 
especially  important  that  it  have  good  feet  and  limbs,  and  bone 


:-u 


87 


88  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  >;  36 

of  the  best  quality.     Horses  of  this  class  are  from  about  15  to 
17  |  hands  high  and  weigh  from  about  1,050  to  1,700  pounds. 
The   subclasses  of  the  wagon-horse   class  are  express  horses, 
ry-wagon  horses,  artillery  horses,  and  fire  horses. 

32.  Express  horses  are  used  singly  or  in  pairs  by  express 
companies  in  the  collecting  and  delivering  of  packages.  The 
size  of  the  horses  that  are  used  is  determined  by  the  weight  of 
the  wagon,  whether  the  horses  are  worked  singly  or  doubly, 
and  the  extent  of  the  territory  from  which  collections  and 
deliveries  are  made.  The  lightest  grade  of  express  hor 
which  are  hitched  to  light  wagons  and  used  for  the  delivering 
of  valuable  packages,  such  as  money,  etc.,  are  known  as  money 
horses;  such  horses  must  be  capable  of  doing  fast  work.  The 
typical  express  horse  should  stand  from  about  15f  to  16§  hands 
high  and  weigh  about  1,400  pounds  when  in  working  condition. 
It  is  important  that  the  shoulders  and  pasterns  of  an  express 
horse  be  obliquely  set  and  that  the  limbs  should  be  of  excellent 
quality,  with  large  feet  and  hoofs  of  a  dense,  tough  horn.  The 
back  and  loins  should  be  short,  broad,  and  well  muscled;  and 
the  quarters  and  thighs  deep,  broad,  and  powerful.  Express 
horses  should  be  quick,  active,  full  of  energy  and  spirit,  and 
able  to  keep  their  feet  well  under  them  when  pulling  either  at 
the  walk  or  the  trot.  Fig.  15  shows  an  excellent  animal  of  the 
express  subclass.  This  horse  is  16  hands  high,  weighs  1.375 
pounds,  and  is  almost  faultless  in  conformation. 

33.  Deli  very- wagon  horses,  or,  as  they  are  often  termed. 
wagon  horses,  are  similar  to  express  horses,  but  are  not  quite 
so  large  and  generally  not  as  high  grade,  as  most  mercantile 
firms  do  not  care  to  pay  large  prices  for  horses.  However, 
there  are  exceptions,  some  large  department  stores  buying 
nothing  but  choice  animals.  Delivery-wagon  horses  should 
have  clean,  hard,  flint y  legs,  and  good  feet  and  pasterns.  The 
range  in  height  is  from  15  to  16  hands  and  in  weight  from  1.100 
to  1,400  pounds.  There  is  always  a  good  demand  at  remunera- 
tive prices  for  the  better  grades  of  express  and  delivery -wagon 
horses,  but  the  lower  grades  do  not  sell  so  well.  The  demand 
for  delivery  -wagon  horses  is  largely  for  the  drawing  of  parcel- 


§36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  89 

delivery  wagons,  and  comes  chiefly  from  retail  houses.  Some 
of  the  coarser,  rougher  animals  are  used  for  heavier  work,  such 
as  the  pulling  of  huckster  wagons,  junk  wagons,  etc.  Fig.  16 
shows  a  good  animal  of  this  subclass. 

34.  Artillery  horses  should  be  from  about  15j  to  16  hands 
high,  weigh  from  about  1,050  to  1,200  pounds,  and  be  from 
5  to  8  years  old.  Only  geldings  are  used  for  artillery  purposes, 
and  the  demand  is  rather  spasmodic.  Contracts  are  let  by  the 
government  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder  to  supply  them  in 
large  numbers  by  a  specified  time.  Because  of  the  rigid  exam- 
ination the  animals  must  undergo  at  the  hands  of  official 
inspectors,  many  men  have  lost  money  in  filling  contracts  for 
artillery  horses.     A  typical  artillery  horse  is  shown  in  Fig.  17. 

35.  Fire  horses,  as  the  term  implies,  are  animals  that  are 
used  for  the  drawing  of  fire-fighting  apparatus.  Because  of 
the  fact  that  such  horses  are  required  to  pull  comparatively 
heavy  loads  at  fast  speed,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  more 
rangy  than  express  horses.  There  is  a  wide  range  in  the  limits 
of  height  and  weight  from  the  smallest  to  the  largest  of  fire 
horses.  For  heavy  engines  and  heavy  hook-and-ladder  trucks 
they  should  weigh  from  about  1,500  to  1,700  pounds  and  stand 
from  about  16  to  17|  hands  high.  Hose-cart  horses  should 
weigh  from  about  1,200  to  1,400  pounds,  and  range  in  height 
from  15  to  about  16f  hands.  Fire  horses  must  be  intelligent 
and  otherwise  suited  for  the  work.  The  demands  for  these 
horses  is  from  cities  maintaining  paid  fire  departments  and  is 
quite  limited.  Enough  fire  horses  are  found  in  the  general 
supply  to  meet  the  demand,  so  that  it  does  not  pay  farmers  to 
try  to  produce  them,  although  they  sell  at  remunerative  prices. 
Automobile  fire  trucks  are  now  replacing  many  fire  horses. 
Fig.  18  shows  a  good  fire  horse,  and  Fig.  19,  a  typical  fire  team 
hitched  to  apparatus.  These  animals  belong  to  the  fire  depart- 
ment of  Chicago,  Illinois. 

36.  Carriage-Horse  Class. — Horses  of  the  carriage-horse 
class  are  used  for  drawing  heavy  vehicles  and  are  frequently 
spoken  of  as  heavy-harness  horses.     They  range  in  height  from 


91 


98  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  MARKET  §36 

14j  to  I65  hands  and  weigh  from  900  to  1,250  pounds.  Car- 
riage horses  are  smoothly  turned  and  high-headed ;  the}'  possess 
an  abundance  of  quality  and  have  high  action  and  fair  speed. 
Everything  about  a  carriage  horse  should  indicate  neatness  and 
refinement.  The  neck  should  be  long  and  arched,  the  head 
small  and  clean-cut,  and  the  ears  neatly  set.  The  shoulders 
should  be  oblique  in  order  to  enable  the  horse  to  carry  his 
knees  as  high  as  possible.  The  back  should  be  short  and  well 
muscled;  the  ribs  should  spring  well  from  the  spine,  giving  a 
round  barrel;  the  hips  should  be  rounding,  and  the  croup  com- 
paratively level  and  well  muscled;  the  quarters  should  be  deep, 
and  the  tail  set  high.  The  limbs  should  be  well  set,  clean, 
flinty,  and  free  from  blemishes  or  unsoundness.  The  sub- 
classes of  the  carriage-horse  class  are  coach  horses,  cobs,  park 
horses,  and  cab  horses. 

37.  Coach  horses  must  have  high  action  and  beauty  of 
form.  They  must  flex  the  hocks  well  under  the  body  and  carry 
the  knees  high  toward  the  chin.  They  are  a  little  larger  than 
other  horses  of  the  carriage  class,  and  may  be  said  to  be  a  little 
more  stately  in  action  than  cobs  or  park  horses.  Coach  horses 
with  good  conformation  but  deficient  in  style  and  action  are 
comparatively  low-priced  animals.  Coarseness  is  a  common 
fault  in  this  subclass  and  is  very  objectionable ;  flat  ribs,  staggy 
necks,  and  long  backs  are  other  faults  that  are  objectionable. 
Coach  horses  should  be  from  15|  to  16j  hands  high  and  weigh 
from  1,100  to  1,250  pounds.  The  demand  is  for  trotters  only. 
In  Fig.  20  is  shown  the  noted  coacher,  President,  owned  by 
E.  D.  Jordan,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts.  Fig  21  shows  a 
coach  team  in  harness. 

38.  Cobs  are  small,  stocky  coach  horses  that  are  from  14| 
to  15 j  hands  high  and  weigh  from  900  to  1,150  pounds.  The 
cob  is  a  popular  English  type,  and  in  England  a  horse  is  never 
considered  a  cob  that  is  over  15  hands  high.  The  action  of  the 
cob  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  coach  horse,  being,  perhaps, 
a  trifle  higher  at  the  knees  and  hocks.  Cobs  should  be  some- 
what quicker  on  their  feet  than  coach  horses.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  cobs  are  particularly  suitable  for  lady  drivers,  they 


§36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  99 

are  often  spoken  of  as  ladies'  cobs.  They  are  usually  hitched 
to  a  light  brougham,  phaeton,  or  some  carriage  that  is  not 
intended  for  carrying  more  than  four.  As  a  rule,  city  pur- 
chasers require  that  the  tails  of  cobs  be  docked;  this  operation, 
h<  >wever,  should  be  left  to  the  dealer  or  buyer.  Fig.  22  shows 
the  noted  cob,  Tinker  Bell.  Fig.  23  shows  Alfred  Yanderbilt's 
cob  team,  Polly  Prim  and  Sweet  Marie.  These  animals  are 
the  highest  type  of  the  cob  subclass. 

39.  Park  horses  are  used  strictly  for  display  purposes,  such 
as  for  driving  in  parks  or  on  boulevards,  and  are  usually  used 
by  horse  fanciers.  An  abundance  of  quality  and  extremely 
high  action  at  both  knees  and  hocks  are  essential  in  horses  of 
this  subclass.  Because  of  their  high  action,  a  great  speed  is 
seldom  secured.  Park  horses  should  be  well  broken  and  have 
good  manners.  For  a  lady's  use,  a  horse  of  a  solid  color  is  more 
desirable  than  one  with  white  markings;  it  is  not  considered 
good  taste  for  a  lady  to  drive  a  strikingly  marked  horse.  The 
height  of  a  park  horse  ranges  from  15  to  15§  hands,  but  the 
most  desirable  height  is  about  15§  hands.  The  weight  for 
this  subclass  ranges  from  1,000  to  1,150  pounds.  An  excellent 
park  horse  is  shown  in  Fig.  24;  this  animal  is  Lady  Seaton,  a 
noted  prize  winner.  Fig.  25  shows  a  tandem  park  team  in 
action. 

40.  Cab  horses  range  from  15|  to  16j  hands  high  and  weigh 
from  1,050  to  1,200  pounds.  Many  of  them  are  either  the 
lower  grades  of  the  coach  class  or  worn-out  and  discarded  coach 
horses.  They  are  used  chiefly  in  cities  for  the  conveyance  of 
vehicles  for  public  service.  The  requirements  of  this  subclass 
differ  from  those  of  the  other  carriage  subclasses  in  that  high 
action  is  not  wanted;  however,  moderate  action  is  desired. 
The  principal  qualities  sought  in  cab  horses  are  symmetry  of 
form  and  endurance,  the  evidence  of  the  latter  being  good  feet 
and  bone,  strong  constitution,  and  a  deep  barrel  with  good 
spring  of  rib  and  close  coupling.  Not  as  much  flesh  is  required 
on  cab  horses  as  on  horses  of  the  other  carriage  classes,  but  they 
should  be  in  good  condition  and  fit  for  sendee.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that,  as  a  rule,  cab  horses  are  not  high-class  animals  and 


l!l(l 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  103 

that  the  supply  is  larger  than  the  demand,  they  do  not  bring 
very  high  prices.     Fig.  26  shows  a  typical  cab  horse. 

41.  Road-Horse  Class. — Road  horses  are  more  lithe  in 
build  and  angular  in  form  than  those  of  the  carriage  class.  They 
arc  frequently  spoken  of  as  drivers  or  as  light-harness  horses, 
and  should  be  able  to  travel  rapidly  and  cover  a  good  distance 
without  undue  fatigue.  Although  performance  is  the  prin- 
cipal quality  sought,  a  good  conformation  is  very  desirable. 
This  class  is  composed  of  runabout  horses  and  roadsters. 

42.  Runabout  horses  occupy  an  intermediate  place  between 
typical  roadsters  and  carriage  horses.  They  wear  harness  much 
like  that  of  carriage  horses,  but  in  action  and  conformation  and 
in  the  use  to  which  they  are  put  they  correspond  more  to  the 
roadster.  They  are  not  so  heavy  and  full  as  coach  horses,  and 
are  not  so  light,  thin,  and  angular  as  roadsters.  They  are  used 
on  runabouts,  driving  wagons,  phaetons,  etc.  Runabout  horses 
are  rather  short  legged,  are  from  14|  to  15|  hands  high,  and 
weigh  from  900  to  1,050  pounds.  A  choice  runabout  horse  is 
shown  in  Fig.  27.  Fig.  28  shows  a  noted  runabout  team,  Lord 
Nelson  and  Grand  Duke. 

43.  Roadsters  are  less  uniform  and  usually  more  lithe  and 
angular  than  runabout  horses.  The  market  requires  roadsters 
to  be  from  15  to  16  hands  high  and  weigh  from  900  to  1,150 
pounds.  In  general,  a  roadster  may  be  described  as  having  the 
greyhound  form,  often  being  a  little  higher  at  the  hips  than  at 
the  withers,  and  powerfully  developed  in  the  hind  limbs.  Speed, 
style,  and  stamina  are  the  principal  qualities  sought  for.  Road- 
sters should  have  a  long,  free,  open  stride  and  quick  recovery; 
they  should  move  the  feet  in  a  straight  line  and  have  good  knee 
action,  although  it  need  not  be  excessively  high.  Interfering, 
forging,  cross-firing,  and  sprawling  of  the  hind  legs  are  common 
faults  in  roadsters  and  are  objected  to ;  these  faults  are  explained 
fully  in  a  subsequent  Section. 

The  more  speed  roadsters  possess  the  higher  prices  they 
bring.  For  road  work  the  demand  is  stronger  for  trotters  than 
for  pacers,   but  for  racing  purposes  there  is  little  difference. 


108  TYPES,  BREEDS,  AND  .MARKET  §36 

Fig.  29  shows  Lucia  G.,  an  excellent  roadster  owned  by  the 
Winoga  Stock  Farm,  of  Chestnut  Hill,  Pennsylvania.  Fig.  30 
shows  a  choice  roadster  team,  Lugano  and  Como. 

44.  Saddle-Horse  Class. — The  most  important  require- 
ment for  an  animal  of  the  saddle-horse  class  is  to  be  sure  of  foot, 
as  no  rider  cares  to  mount  a  stumbler.  A  saddle  horse  should 
also  be  an  easy  rider,  and  be  easily  controlled.  In  order  to 
possess  these  requirements,  the  animal  should  have  oblique 
shoulders  and  pasterns,  to  give  springiness  to  the  gait;  high, 
thin  withers,  to  prevent  the  saddle  from  turning  and  to  hold  it 
midway  between  the  front  and  the  hind  legs;  a  short  back  and 
short  loins,  for  strength  in  carrying  weight;  and  a  moderately 
long  neck  and  a  good  mouth,  to  give  suppleness  and  ease  of 
control.  A  horse  that  lugs  at  the  bit  is  undesirable  as  a  sad- 
dler. The  croup  should  be  long,  level,  and  muscular,  and  the 
tail  neatly  attached  and  smartly  carried.  In  selecting  a  saddle 
horse,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  choose  a  conformation  that  will  place 
the  rider  well  back  on  the  animal,  thus  lessening  the  weight  on 
the  fore  end.  The  subclasses  of  the  saddle-horse  class  are: 
five-gaited  saddlers,  three-gaited  saddlers,  hunters,  cavalry  horses, 
and  polo  ponies. 

45.  Five-gaited  saddlers,  often  spoken  of  as  gaited  saddle 
horses  or  as  American  saddle  horses,  are  the  result  of  skilful 
selection  and  breeding  for  more  than  half  a  century.  They 
should  possess  the  five  recognized  distinct  gaits  under  the  sad- 
dle, namely,  the  walk,  the  trot,  the  canter,  the  single-foot  or 
rack,  and  a  slow  gait,  which  may  be  either  the  running  walk. 
the  fox  trot,  or  the  slow  pace.  The  action  should  be  bold  and 
vigorous,  with  no  inclination  to  mix  gaits.  The  rack  should  be 
smooth,  graceful,  rapid,  and  free  from  side  motion,  which  pro- 
duces roughness  when  going  fast.  The  horse  should  be  taught 
to  lead  with  either  leg  in  cantering,  and  to  go  slow  or  fast 
according  to  the  pleasure  of  the  rider.  The  action  at  the  trot 
should  not  be  high,  but  should  be  free  and  open,  and  the  hind 
legs  kept  well  under  the  body.  Horses  of  this  subclass  should 
have  a  long,  flowing  tail  that  is  gracefully  carried.  The  most 
desirable  height  for  a  five-gaited  saddle  horse  is  from  15|  to 


§  36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  109 

15 j  hands,  and  the  most  desirable  weight  is  from  1,050  to  1,150 
pounds,  although  the  range  in  height  is  from  15  to  16  hands 
and  in  weight  from  900  to  1,200  pounds.  Fig.  31  shows 
Kentucky's  Choice,  a  noted  five-gaited  saddler. 

46.  Three-gaited  saddlers  arc  much  the  same  in  general 
type  and  conformation  as  the  five-gaited  saddlers,  but  they  are 
a  little  more  compactly  built,  having  shorter  necks  and  bodies; 
the  tails  are  usually  docked  and  set;  and  they  have  only  the 
three  gaits:  the  walk,  the  trot,  and  the  canter.  This  subclass 
is  subdivided  into  light  and  heavy  horses,  the  former  being 
expected  to  cany  weights  of  not  over  165  pounds,  and  the  latter 
weights  above  this.  In  general,  the  heavy  weights  are  about  an 
inch  taller  and  50  to  100  pounds  heavier  than  the  light  weights. 
Fig.  32  shows  an  excellent  three-gaited  saddler,  Nuff  Sed. 

47.  Hunters  are  horses  used  by  sportsmen  to  ride  after 
hounds.  They  are  often  required  to  take  daring  leaps  over 
fences  and  gullies,  and  must  be  fearless  and  trained  to  jump. 
They  should  be  strongly  built  and  able  to  stand  long,  hard 
rides  without  becoming  unduly  jaded.  In  the  show  ring, 
hunters  are  classified  as  light,  medium,  and  heavy  weights,  the 
division  being  determined  by  the  weight  they  are  expected  to 
carry.  The  limits  in  weight  for  hunters  are  from  1,000  to 
1,250  pounds.  The  most  desirable  height  is  from  loh  to  16 
hands,  but  may  be  slightly  more.  A  light-weight  hunter  is 
not  expected  to  carry  over  165  pounds;  a  middle  weight,  is 
expected  to  carry  from  165  to  190  pounds;  and  a  heavy  weight, 
190  pounds  or  over.  Fig.  33  shows  a  noted  hunter,  Rock  Crest, 
owned  by  Frederick  Bull,  of  New  York  City. 

48.  Cavalry  horses,  as  the  name  implies,  are  horses  used 
by  the  government  for  cavalry  mounts.  For  this  service,  the 
government  requires  geldings  of  uniform  and  lasting  color. 
The}'  must  be  in  good  condition,  from  4  to  8  years  old,  weigh 
from  950  to  1,100  pounds,  and  be  from  15  to  15f  hands  high. 
Like  artillery  horses,  they  are  purchased  by  contract,  orders 
being  given  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  A  typical  cavalry 
horse  is  shown  in  Fie.  •*'>!. 


113 


I 


114 


§36  CLASSES  OF  HORSES  115 

49.  Polo  ponies  are  small  saddlers  that  are  used  in  playing 
polo.  The  four  essentials  which  they  must  possess  are  a  speci- 
fied size,  weight-carrying  ability,  agility,  and  speed.  The  rules 
of  the  American  Polo  Association  fix  the  maximum  height  of 
Polo  ponies  at  1-U  hands,  but  the  rules  are  frequently  disre- 
garded. The  limits  in  weight  are  from  850  to  1,000  pounds. 
Although  the  larger  ponies  may  have  the  advantage  over  the 
smaller  in  weight  and  speed,  it  is  generally  conceded  that  they 
are  not  so  quick  to  stop  and  start,  which  is  a  very  important 
requisite.  They  should  possess  a  conformation  indicative  of 
strength  and  endurance,  and  also  possess  a  marked  degree  of 
intelligence,  for  if  they  are  not  capable  of  acquiring  an  educa- 
tion they  are,  worthless  for  polo.  They  must  be  sure  footed, 
quick  on  foot,  and  dextrous  in  starting,  stopping,  and  turning. 
A  polo  pony  is  shown  in  Fig.  35. 


HORSE  JUDGING 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS 

1.  Horse  judging  is  the  art  of  ascertaining  the  qualities 
of  a  horse  and  of  weighing  them  in  comparison  with  those  of 
other  horses  or  of  an  ideal  horse  in  the  mind  of  the  judge. 
As  the  term  is  commonly  used,  however,  its  specific  application 
is  somewhat  indefinite.  It  may  have  reference  to  the  judging 
of  horses  competing  in  a  show  ring  or  to  more  general  judging 
such  as  any  person  may  do  in  distinguishing  between  good 
and  inferior  animals.  Likewise,  the  term  a  judge  of  Jwrses 
may  be  applied  either  to  a  person  that  is  sufficiently  proficient 
in  judging  to  officiate  in  the  show  ring,  or  to  one  that  is 
able,  through  more  or  less  knowledge  of  horses,  to  distinguish 
merits  and  demerits.  Show-ring  judging  is  an  art  that  requires 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  so-called  fancy  points  of  the 
particular  breed  or  class  to  be  judged,  and,  further,  is  of  direct 
interest  to  comparatively  few  persons.  For  this  reason, 
judging  will  be  discussed  in  this  Section  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  person  who  desires  merely  to  select  good  animals,  and 
reference  will  not  be  made  to  the  fancy  points  of  the  different 
breeds  and  classes. 

2.  The  Anatomy  as  a  Basis  of  Study  in  Horse  Judging. 

In  learning  to  judge  horses,  it  is  necessary  for  a  person  to 
study  the  horse  as  a  mechanism.  The  bones  should  be  con- 
sidered as  levers,  the  muscles  as  the  source  of  power,  and  the 
nervous  system  as  the  stimulator  of  the  muscles.  The  con- 
formation and  quality  of  the  bones,  the  depth  and  quality  of 

COPYRIGHTED     BY     INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK     COMPANY.        ALL     RIGHTS     RESERVED 

537 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  3 

the  muscular  covering,  and  the  nature  of  the  nervous  system 
are  extremely  important  guides  to  the  fitness  of  a  horse  for 
a  particular  purpose. 

To  explain  the  anatomical  terms  that  are  necessary  in  a 
discussion  of  horse  judging,  a  view  of  the  skeleton  of  a  horse 
with  a  contour  view  of  the  body  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  bones, 
groups  of  bones,  and  joints  that  should  be  known  by  a  judge 
of  horses  are  numbered,  their  names  being  given  below. 

Bony  Anatomy  of  the  Horse 

/,  Lower  jaw  21,  Accessory  carpal  bone 

2,  Upper  jaw  22,  Splint  bone 

3  to  3,  Cervical  vertebrae  23,  Front  sesamoid  bones 

4  to  4,  Thoracic  vertebra  24,  Ilium 

5  to  5,  Lumbar  vertebras  25,  Hip  joint 

6  to  6,  Sacrum  26,  Ischium 

7  to  7,  Coccygeal  vertebrae  27,  Femur 

8,  Scapula  28,  Patella 

9,  Shoulder  joint  29,  Stifle  joint 

10,  Humerus  30,  Tibia 

11,  Elbow  joint  31,  Os  calcis 

12,  Radius  32,  Hock  joint 

13,  Knee  joint  S3,  Hind  cannon  bone 

14,  Front  cannon  bone  34,  Hind  sesamoid  bones 

15,  Front  fetlock  joint  35,  Hind  fetlock  joint 

16,  Front  pastern  bones  36,  Hind  pastern  bones 

17,  Front  pastern  joint  37,  Hind  pastern  joint 

18,  Front  coffin  joint  38,  Hind  coffin  joint 

19,  Front  coffin  bone  39,  Hind  coffin  bone 

20,  Ulna  40,  Ribs 

As  the  front  legs  of  a  horse  bear  the  greater  part  of  its  weight, 
they  are  termed  the  weight  carriers.  The  hind  legs  are  termed 
the  propellers  because  they  apply  most  of  the  power.  The 
bones  of  the  front  legs  have  no  bony  connection  with  the  skele- 
ton of  the  body,  but  are  hung  to  it  by  means  of  strong  muscles ; 
for  this  reason  there  is  less  concussion  on  a  horse  when  in  action 
than  if  the  connection  between  the  legs  and  frame  were  solid 
bone.  The  bones  of  the  hind  legs,  by  which  power  is  trans- 
mitted, are  arranged  in  a  series  of  angles  and  the  femurs  are 
connected  to  the  skeleton  by  means  of  strong  ball-and-socket 

243—33 


SCORE    CARD 

Name  or  number  of  animal  .... 

Age 

Blemishes 

Unsoundnesses 

Estimated  market  value 


FOR     LIGHT    MARKET    HORSES 


General  Appearance 

Height:  score  according  to  class 

Weight:  score  according  to  class 

Form:  according  to  class,  symmetrical,  smooth,  and  stylish 

Condition:  carrying  a  moderate  amount  of  firm  flesh 

Quality:  bone  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  sufficient  substance;  tendons 

well  defined ;  hair  and  skin  fine 

Temperament:  spirited,  yet  docile 

Head  and  Neck 

Head:  not  too  large,  features  well  defined  and  regular 

Muzzle:  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even;  teeth  sound 

Eyes:  large,  full,  bright,  and  clear 

Forehead :  broad  and  full 

Ears:  medium  size,  pointed;  well  carried,  and  not  far  apart 

Neck:  rather  long  and  clean  cut,  well  muscled;  crest  well  developed  and 
nicely  arched;  throat  latch  fine;  windpipe  large;  tapering  from 
shoulder  to  head  and  head  attached  at  proper  angle 

Forequarters 

Shoulders:  oblique,  long,  smooth,  and  covered  with  muscle  extending 
into  back;  withers  well  finished  at  the  top 

Arms:  short,  well  muscled,  elbows  lying  close  to  the  body 

Fore  legs:  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  shoulder  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the 
center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee  and 
pastern  joint  and  back  of  the  hoof 

Forearms:  well  muscled,  medium  length,  wide,  and  tapering  from  the 
elbow  to  the  knee 

Knees:  large,  clean,  wide,  straight,  and  strongly  supported 

Cannons:  medium,  length  wide,  clean;  tendons  large,  set  well  back,  not 
tied  in  below  the  knees 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 

Pasterns:  strong,  of  medium  length;  angle  with  the  ground  4.5° 

Feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars 
strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high;  hoof  head  large 

Body 

Chest:  deep,  low;  girth  large;  width  of  breast  in  proportion  to  other  parts 

Ribs:  long,  well  sprung 

Back:  straight,  short,  broad,  well  muscled 

Loins:  wide,  short,  thick,  and  neatly  joined  to  hips 

Under  line:  long;  flank  low 


Perfect  Judge's 
Score       Score 

1  

1  


Hindquarters 

Hips:  smooth,  level,  width  in  proportion  to  other  parts  but  not  prom- 
inent   

Croup:  long,  wide,  muscular 

Tail:  attached  high,  well  carried,  well  haired,  with  straight  and  not  too 
coarse  hair 

Thighs:  long,  muscular,  thick,  and  wide,  well  muscled  over  stifle 

Quarters:  heavily  muscled 

Hind  legs:  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  buttock  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the 
middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should 
run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

Gaskins,  or  lower  thighs:  wide,  well  muscled 

Hocks:  large,  strong,  clean,  and  well  defined,  free  from  puffiness,  coarse- 
ness, and  curbiness 

Cannons:  short,  broad,  flat  and  clean,  tendons  large  and  set  back,  not 
too  light  below  the  hock 

Fetlocks:  large,  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 

Pasterns:  strong  and  of  medium  length;  obliquity  not  so  great  as  fore 
pasterns 

Hind  feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  smaller  and  not  so  round  as  fore 
feet;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel 
wide,  high 

Action 

Walk:  elastic,  quick,  balanced;  step  long 

Trot:  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high;  should  not  forge,  wing,  or  roll  in 
front,  or  go  wide  or  too  close  behind 

Total 


15 
100 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    HEAVY    MARKET    HORSES 

Name  or  number  of  animal 

Age 

Market  class 

Blemishes 

Unsoundnesses 

Estimated  market  value 

Perfect  Judge's 
General  Appearance  Score      Score 

Height:  score  according  to  class „ 

Weight:  score  according  to  class ■  •  ■ , 

Form:  according  to  class,  broad,  massive,  symmetrical £ 

Condition:  carrying  a  good  amount  of  firm  flesh. ..  ...  ... .  ■ . .  •  •  ■■«%"; 

Quality:  bone  moderately  heavy,  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  sufficient 

substance;  tendons  well  defined;  hair  and  skin  fine * 

Temperament:  quiet,  yet  energetic 

Head  and  Neck 

Head:  medium  in  size,  not  coarse ■ • . 

Muzzle:  fine;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even;  teeth  sound J  ■    ■ 

Eyes:  large,  full,  bright,  clear . 

Forehead:  broad  and  full • 

Ears:  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and  not  tar  apart ...  •  i  

Neck-  medium  length,  clean  cut,  well  muscled;  tapering  from  shoulder 
to  head,  and  head  attached  at  proper  angle;  crest  well  developed 

and  nicely  arched;  throat  latch  fine;  windpipe  large -  

Forequarters 
Shoulders:  oblique,  long,  smooth,  and  covered  with   muscle   extending 

into  back;  withers  well  finished  at  the  top »  

Arms:  short,  well  muscled,  elbow  lying  close  to  the  body . . . . . :■■■■.         "  

Fore  legs-  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  ot 
the  shoulder  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the 
center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  knee  and 

pastern  joint  and  back  of  the  hoof.  .  . ...  .  •  •  •  ■  ■  ■  •  •  «J 

Forearms:  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide,  and  tapering  from  the  elbow  to  

Knees:  large,  clean,' wide,' straight,  and  strongly  supported. . . .  ....  .  .  .  ■  1  

Cannons:  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  large,  set.  well  back,  not  tied  in  

below  the  knees ■ . 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness . i  

Pasterns:  strong,  of  medium  length;  angle  with  the  ground  4o  degrees.  .  I  

Feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars 

strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high;  hoof  head  large o  

Body 
Chest:  deep,  low;  girth  large;  width  of  breast  in  proportion  to  other  part?         3  __— 

Ribs:  long,  well  sprung •  ■  ■ V. 

Back:  straight,  short,  broad,  well  muscled £  

Loins:  wide,  short,  thick,  and  neatly  joined  to  hips -  — — - — 

Under  line:  long,  flank  low * 

Hindquarters 
Hips:   smooth,  level;   width  in   proportion   with  other  parts,  but  not 

prominent , „ 

Croup:  long,  wide,  muscular,  not  drooping ...................  ^  

Tail:  attached  high,  well  carried,  well  haired,  with  straight  and  not  too 

coarse  hair ■ •  •  • -.l „ 

Thighs:  long,  muscular,  thick,  and  wide;  well  muscled  over  stifle a  

Quarters:  heavily  muscled,  deep .........  .  .  ...  •  •  ■  ■  •  •  .•  •  ■  ■  •  - 

Hind  legs:  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  trom  the  point  ol 
the  buttock  should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern, 
and  foot;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  on  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the 
middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 

should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 4  

Gaskins,  or  lower  thighs:  long,  wide,  well  muscled 1  

Hocks:  large,  strong,  clean,  and  well  defined;  free  from  puffiness,  coarse- 
ness, and  curbiness •  •  •  •  • •  •  •  -  

Cannons:  medium  length,  broad,  flat,  and  clean;  tendons  large  and  set 

back,  not  too  light  below  the  hock *  

Fetlocks:  large,  wide,  straight,  strong,  free  from  puffiness 1  

Pasterns:  strong  and  of  medium  length;  obliquity  not  so  great  as  fore 

pasterns 1 

Hind  feet:  straight,  medium  size,  even;  smaller  and  not  so  round  as  lore 
feet;  horn  dense;  frog  large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel 

wide,  high 4  

Action 

Walk:  elastic,  quick,  balanced;  step  long •  ■.  ■  • 6  

Trot:  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high;  should  not  wing  or  roll  in  front  or  go 

wide  or  too  close  behind *  

Total «» 

5 


6  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

joints;  this  also  aids  in  preventing  concussion  and  makes 
locomotion  possible.  When  a  leg  is  extended  there  is  a  straight- 
ening of  the  angles;  and  a  horse  is  able  to  reach  the  ground 
with  its  foot  without  materially  lowering  the  body.  It  can 
be  seen  in  Fig.  1  that  angles  occur  in  the  front  legs  between 
the  scapula  and  the  humerus,  the  humerus  and  radius,  and  the 
cannon  and  the  pastern;  in  the  hind  legs,  between  the  ilium 
and  the  femur,  the  tibia  and  the  cannon,  and  the  cannon  and 
the  pastern. 

The  coupling  of  a  horse  is  commonly  described  as  the  dis- 
tance from  the  last  rib  to  the  ilium,  or  hip  bone,  but  in  reality 
it  is  the  connection  between  the  last  thoracic  vertebra  and 
the  beginning  of  the  sacrum.  An  animal  that  has  an  objec- 
tionably long  coupling  is  too  long  in  the  lumbar  vertebrae. 
The  last  rib,  being  attached  to  the  rear  thoracic  vertebra, 
furnishes  the  best  means  available  for  determining  the  forward 
boundary  of  the  coupling. 

Muscles  consist  of  bundles  of  fibers.  When  the  fibers  are 
long  and  thin  they  are  more  elastic  and  have  greater  possi- 
bility of  contraction  than  when  they  are  short  and  heavy. 
Heavy  muscles  denote  power;  long,  slender  ones  denote  speed. 
Short  muscles  are  usually  found  in  association  with  short 
bones  and  in  regions  where  the  principal  function  is  the  trans- 
mission of  power;  long  muscles  are  usually  associated  with 
long  bones  and  in  regions  where  the  muscles  are  the  source 
of  speed. 

The  nervous  system  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals 
and  is  no  less  important  as  a  point  of  study  in  the  judging  of 
horses  than  the  bones  and  muscles.  Its  function  is  to  control 
all  action,  both  voluntary  and  involuntary.  It  is  through 
nervous  stimulation  that  an  animal  is  able  to  relax,  contract, 
and  control  its  muscles.  Thus,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  degree 
of  stimulation  has  much  to  do  with  the  quickness  and  strength 
with  which  a  horse  may  act. 

3.     Use  of  Score  Cards  in  Judging  of  Horses. — As  an  aid 

to  beginners  in  the  judging  of  horses,  score  cards  are  often 
used.     Such  cards  are  devised  for  the  purpose  of  familiarizing 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  7 

the  novice  with  the  different  parts  of  a  horse  and  their  relative 
importance  as  expressed  numerically.  As  soon  as  the  score 
card  has  been  mastered  it  should  be  laid  aside. 

For  the  present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to  give  two  forms  of 
score  cards,  namely,  one  for  light  horses  and  one  for  heavy 
horses.  The  term  light  horses  has  reference  to  animals  that 
arc  used  for  riding  and  driving  or  other  pleasure  purposes; 
the  term  heavy  horses  refers  to  animals  that  are  used  for 
drawing  heavy  loads,  such  as  in  teaming  and  farm  work.  The 
score  cards  given  here  are  based  on  the  market  requirements 
for  these  two  general  groups,  and  are  similar  to  the  score  cards 
used  at  the  several  agricultural  colleges  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada. 

4.  Market  Requirements  for  Horses. — The  market  value 
of  a  horse  is  rated  largely  according  to  its  soundness,  con- 
formation, quality,  condition,  action,  age,  color,  education  and 
disposition,  and  general  appearance.  There  are  certain  minor 
considerations,  also,  such  as  sex  and  breed,  that  may  affect  the 
value  in  some  cases,  but  such  factors  usually  have  little  weight. 

5.  Soundness  is  the  most  important  consideration  in 
determining  a  horse's  value.  A  horse  with  any  disease  or 
alteration  of  structure  on  account  of  disease  or  accident,  that 
is  enfeebled  or  deranged,  or  that  has  any  vice  that  actually 
interferes  with  its  usefulness  and  reduces  its  capability  for 
work  is  termed  unsound.  Horses  are  frequently  sold  at  public 
auction  as  being  serviceably  sound;  that  is,  they  have  no 
defects  that  make  them  unfit  for  the  service  for  which  they 
are  sold.  They  must  be  good  in  wind  and  eyes  and  must  not 
be  lame  or  sore  in  any  way,  but  may  have  blemishes  of  a 
minor  nature,  such  as  small  splints  or  a  spot  or  streak  in  the 
eye  that  does  not  affect  the  sight.  Blemishes  that  detract 
from  the  appearance  of  an  animal  and  lessen  its  sale  value 
but  that  do  not  interfere  with  its  usefulness  are  not  unsound- 
nesses, although  they  may  be  an  indication  of  unsoundness; 
for  instance,  skin  scars  are  only  blemishes,  but  they  may 
indicate  the  presence  of  spavin,  ringbone,  or  certain  other 
similar  unsoundnesses.     Some  of  the  unsoundnesses  that  dis- 


8  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

qualify  a  horse  for  hard  service  are:  broken  wind,  unsound 
eves,  ringbones,  side  bones,  large  splints,  buck  knees,  and 
unsound  hocks,  such  as  those  having  curbs,  spavins,  and  large 
thoroughpins.     These  unsoundnesses  will  be  discussed  later. 

6.  The  conformation  of  a  horse  should  indicate  strength 
and  endurance.  Strength  is  denoted  chiefly  by  well-developed 
muscles  and  a  general  symmetry  of  parts.  Endurance  is 
indicated  by  a  deep,  capacious  chest,  good  feet  and  legs, 
a  short,  well-muscled  back,  a  deep  barrel  and  deep  flanks,  and 
a  short  coupling.  The  extent  to  which  muscles  indicate 
strength  is  determined  not  only  by  their  size  but  also  by  their 
quality;  they  should  be  elastic  and  pliable  in  addition  to  being 
well  developed.  Symmetry  of  parts  is  necessary  for  correct 
proportions.  A  deep,  capacious  chest  in  which  there  is  plenty 
of  room  for  the  vital  organs  denotes  health  and  a  strong  con- 
stitution; these  qualities  are  the  most  instrumental  in  insuring 
endurance.  Because  of  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
horses  that  work  on  paved  streets  wear  out  first  in  the  feet, 
the  conformation  and  quality  of  these  parts  are  important 
considerations  in  the  selection  of  horses  for  use  in  the  cities; 
the  feet  of  horses  intended  for  farm  use  do  not  receive  so  much 
consideration  as  those  of  horses  for  city  use,  as  the  feet  of 
farm  horses  rarely  wear  out.  Likewise,  the  legs  of  horses 
intended  for  city  work  are  scrutinized  more  closely  than  those 
of  horses  for  farm  work,  because  the  concussion  in  traveling 
on  pavements  is  much  greater  than  in  traveling  on  soil  and 
consequently  the  wear  is  greater.  A  short,  well-muscled  back, 
a  deep  barrel  and  deep  flanks,  and  a  short  coupling  indicate 
good  feeding  qualities,  which,  in  turn,  denote  endurance. 

Excessive  concussion  usually  produces  soreness  and  disease 
and  therefore  shortens  the  period  of  usefulness  of  an  animal, 
and  in  order  that  there  may  be  the  least  concussion  when  its 
feet  strike  the  ground,  a  horse  should  have  oblique  shoulders, 
rather  short  cannons,  and  moderately  long  pasterns.  The  front 
pasterns  should  set  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  with  the 
ground;  the  hind  pasterns  should  stand  at  a  slightly  wider  angle 
with  the  ground.    Buyers  discriminate  against  horses  with  long, 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


low  pasterns.  In  Fig.  2  is  illustrated  the  lower  part  of  a 
horse's  leg  with  a  pastern  a  that  illustrates  this  objectionable 
conformation.  A  horse  that  has  pasterns 
of  this  kind  is  said  to  be  coon-footed. 

The  width  of  the  hips  should  be  in  keep- 
ing with  the  other  parts  of  a  horse,  but  the 
hips  should  not  be  prominent.  The  croup 
should  be  long,  well  muscled,  and  not  too 
drooping.  A  drooping  croup,  although  more 
objectionable  in  some  classes  than  in  others, 
is  unsightly  and  detracts  from  the  value  of 
a  horse.  In  Fig.  3  (a)  is  shown  a  drooping 
croup  and  in  (b),  a  croup  of  the  correct 
conformation.  The  tail  should  be  set  high, 
be  well  haired,  and  be  stylishly  carried. 
The  quarters  and  thighs  should  be  heavily 
muscled  and  the  hocks  large,  strong,  and 
clean  cut.  The  head  should  be  of  moderate  size,  the  eyes 
large   and   mild,    and   the    ears    refined,    carried    erect,    and 


Fig.  2 


(a) 


(10 


Fig.  3 


10 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


not  set  too  far  apart.     A  Roman  nose,  a  peculiar  conformation 
of  the  face  that  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  is  not  desirable. 

7.  Quality  in  a  horse  is  of  prime  importance.  As  applied 
to  horses,  it  has  reference  to  the  degree  of  excellence  of  the 
bones,  skin,  hair,  and  muscles.  Its  presence  is  shown  by 
clean-cut  features  of  the  head  and  legs,  clean  bones,  and  well- 
defined  tendons;  a  soft,  glove-like  skin  with  fine,  silky  hair; 
well-defined  muscles,  joints,  and  tendons;  and  an  absence  of 
coarseness.  When  an  animal  of  quality  is  exerted  the  skin 
shows    clearly    an    intricate    network    of    veins.     Coarseness 

throughout,  especially  of 
hair  and  skin,  is  usually 
associated  with  soft,  spongy 
bone,  which  is  subject  to 
disease  under  the  strain  of 
hard  usage  or  neglect .  The 
presence  or  absence  of 
quality  is  a  strong  indica- 
tion of  the  extent  of  a  horse's 
endurance. 

8.  Horses  must  be  in 
good  condition  in  order  to 
bring  good  prices  on  the 
market;  that  is,  they  must  have  enough  flesh  to  round  out 
their  bodies,  and  a  glossy  coat  of  hair  to  give  them  a  sleek 
appearance;  a  good  coat  of  hair  that  fills  the  market  require- 
ments is  often  estimated  to  be  worth  about  $10.  Condition 
is  a  more  important  consideration  in  heavy  horses  than  in 
light  horses.  Careful  estimates  based  on  experiments  have 
been  made  that  give  the  value  per  pound  of  a  sufficient  amount 
of  flesh  to  put  heavy  horses  in  good  market  condition  at  from 
20  to  25  cents.  As  the  cost  of  putting  flesh  on  horses  need  not 
exceed  from  8  to  12  cents  per  pound,  the  producer  can  well 
afford  to  fatten  his  thin  horses  before  selling  them. 

9.  Excellence  of  action  is  more  effective  than  any  other 
one  point  in  bringing  a  high  price  for  a  horse  of  the  carriage, 


Fig.  4 


§37  HORSE  JUDGING  11 

road,  or  saddle  classes,  but  it  is  not  so  important  in  the  case 
of  horses  of  other  classes;  however,  the  market  requires  that 
all  horses  have  good  action.  A  horse  should  move  its  legs  and 
feet  in  a  straight  line,  picking  the  front  feet  well  up  and  carry- 
ing them  forwards  without  winging  or  interfering.  By  winging 
is  meant  throwing  the  feet  out  or  in  when  traveling.  Inter- 
fering means  striking  the  fetlock  or  the  cannon  of  one  leg  with 
the  foot  of  the  opposite  leg  as  it  passes;  interfering  may  be  done 
by  the  hind  legs  as  well  as  the  front.  The  hind  feet  should 
follow  in  the  line  of  the  front  feet  without  interfering,  hitching, 
cross-firing,  or  forging.  By  hitching  is  meant  taking  a  longer 
stride  with  one  hind  leg  than  with  the  other.  By  cross-firing 
is  meant  the  striking  of  a  fore  foot  in  traveling  with  the  hind 
foot  of  the  opposite  side.  Forging  is  striking  a  front  shoe 
with  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  on  the  same  side.  The  action 
required  for  the  various  classes  has  already  been  described  in 
a  previous  Section. 

10.  Age  is  of  great  importance  in  determining  the  value 
of  a  horse.  The  market  demand  is  for  horses  that  are  from 
4  to  8  years  old,  the  exact  age  depending  on  the  market  class, 
the  degree  of  maturity,  and  the  soundness  of  each  animal. 
All  horses,  sell  best  when  they  are  from  5  to  7  years  old,  but  in 
the  case  of  classes  for  which  there  is  a  strong  demand,  a  well- 
matured  animal,  if  in  good  condition,  will  be  readily  taken 
at  less  than  5  years  of  age.  Heavy  horses  mature  earlier  than 
light  horses  and  less  time  is  required  for  their  education,  con- 
sequently they  are  acceptable  to  the  market  at  a  younger  age, 
and  their  value,  likewise,  begins  to  decrease  sooner  than  that 
of  light  horses. 

11.  Color,  as  a  rule,  is  not  an  important  market  con- 
sideration, and  all  horses  with  solid  colors  except  white  are  in 
good  demand.  A  good  animal  of  any  solid  color  is  rarely 
objected  to  unless  it  is  by  a  purchaser  who  has  a  special  order 
to  fill.  More  discrimination  in  color  is  made  in  the  case  of 
light  horses  than  of  heavy  horses,  for  the  reason  that  the  latter 
are  used  chiefly  for  utility  purposes,  and  the  former  are  used 
principally  for  pleasure  purposes.     Choice  steel-gray,  dapple- 


12  HORSE  JUDGING  §37 

gray,  and  strawberry-roan  horses  of  the  draft,  eastern-chunk, 
and  wagon-horse  classes  are  in  strong  demand  by  firms  that 
regard  their  teams  as  an  advertisement  and  want  them  to 
attract  as  much  attention  as  possible.  Bay,  brown,  and 
chestnut  horses  sell  better  in  the  light-horse  classes  than  those 
of  any  other  colors,  although  a  well-matched  pair  of  blacks 
that  are  suitable  for  hearse  purposes  are  usually  in  strong 
demand.  White  horses,  also,  are  sometimes  used  for  hearse 
purposes,  but  the  principal  demand  is  for  black  animals  with 
no  white  markings. 

12.  The  education  and  disposition  of  horses  have  con- 
siderable influence  on  their  market  value.  Horses  of  all  classes 
should  have  kind  dispositions,  be  willing  workers,  and  be  well 
educated  for  their  work.  It  is  readily  apparent,  however, 
that  a  thorough  education  is  much  more  necessary  in  some 
classes  than  in  others.  Horses  that  are  expected  to  show 
fancy  action  or  gaits  must  be  thoroughly  trained  for  their  work ; 
and  all  light  horses  should  be  indifferent  to  sights  and  sounds 
that  commonly  frighten  horses.  Heavy  horses  should  be 
good  pullers  and  be  free  from  bad  habits  and  vices. 

13.  The  general  appearance  of  a  horse  has  much  to  do  with 
its  market  value.  A  horse  intended  for  market  should  be  well 
groomed  so  that  the  hair  is  close  to  the  body  and  is  sleek  and 
glossy.  The  foretops  and  legs  of  market  horses  should  not  be 
clipped,  because  this  gives  the  impression  that  the  animals 
are  second-hand  or  stale,  that  is,  not  in  their  prime,  and  the 
presence  of  foretop  and  feather  leaves  little  doubt  as  to  the 
animals  being  fresh  from  the  country.  Docking  of  the  tail 
should  not  be  practiced  by  the  producer,  as  that  is  the  business 
of  dealers  who  cater  to  a  certain  class  of  trade. 

14.  The  sex  of  a  horse  has  little  effect,  as  a  rule,  on  its 
market  value,  although  for  city  use,  geldings  sell  better  than 
mares,  and  the  reverse  condition  is  true  for  country  use.  Mares 
are  not  desirable  in  the  city,  because  there  is  a  likelihood  of 
them  being  in  foal,  and  the  exhibition  of  heat  is  objectionable; 
but  for  country  use  mares  are  preferred,  because  in  many  cases 
farmers  buy  horses  with  the  expectation  of  breeding  them. 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  13 

15.  The  breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  little  effect 
on  its  market  value,  provided  the  horse  is  a  good  individual. 
Some  buyers  discriminate  against  the  animals  of  certain  breeds 
on  the  ground  that  they  are  more  subject  to  ills  and  unsound- 
nesses than  those  of  other  breeds.  However,  in  general,  the 
breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  little  influence  in  determin- 
ing its  value.  

PROCEDURE  IN  JUDGING  OF  HORSES 


GENERAL  EXAMINATION 

16.  In  the  judging  of  horses,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a 
definite  system  of  procedure.  The  system  followed  by  most 
judges  is  first  to  make  an  examination  of  an  animal  in  a  general 
way  and  then  to  make  a  thorough  and  detailed  examination 
of  each  part.  In  a  general  examination  of  an  animal  the 
judge  should  study  its  conformation,  quality,  style,  action, 
and  temperament. 

17.  Judging  of  Conformation.— Usually  the  first  point  that 
is  considered  in  a  general  examination  of  a  horse  is  its  confor- 
mation. By  conformation  is  meant  the  form,  structure, 
outline,  or  general  arrangement  of  the  parts.  The  confor- 
mation of  a  horse  can  best  be  studied  from  a  point  several 
paces  away  from  the  animal;  the  judge  should  stand  first  at 
one  side,  then  at  the  front,  then  at  the  other  side,  and  finally 
at  the  rear.  From  the  side,  the  judge  can  observe  the  top  and 
bottom  lines  and  study  the  general  balance  of  the  horse.  The 
top  line— the  back  from  the  top  of  the  shoulders  to  the  root 
of  the  tail— should  be  relatively  straight  and  short;  the  under 
line— the  line  of  the  body  from  the  fore  legs  to  the  hind  legs- 
should  be  long  with  a  low  flank.  The  judge  can  observe  also 
from  the  side  the  length  and  contour  of  the  neck,  the  carriage 
of  the  head,  the  slope  of  the  shoulders,  the  depth  of  the  body, 
the  filling  in  of  the  fore  flanks,  the  length  of  the  coupling,  the 
length  and  levelness  of  the  croup,  the  set  of  the  legs,  and 
the  muscular  development  of  the  forearms  and  gaskins.     The 


If 


15 


16  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

requirements  for  these  points  are  given  in  the  score  cards  for 
light  and  heavy  horses  and  are  explained  later. 

18.  In  Fig.  5  (a)  is  shown  a  side  view  of  the  correct  posi- 
tion of  the  fore  legs  of  a  horse  when  it  is  standing.  A  plumb 
line  dropped  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  bisects  the  knee, 
cannon,  and  fetlock,  and  strikes  the  ground  at  the  heel.  In  (6), 
the  foot  extends  too  far  forwards;  this  may  be  a  natural  posi- 
tion or  it  may  be  due  to  soreness  in  the  feet.  Occasionally, 
a  horse  is  found  that  stands  with  the  fore  feet  too  far  back, 
that  is,  just  opposite  of  the  position  shown  in  (b).  The  posi- 
tion shown  in  (c)  is  common  in  horses;  and  an  animal  that  has 
the  legs  in  this  position  is  said  to  be  buck-kneed  or  knee  sprung. 
A  horse  with  the  legs  in  position  shown  in  (d)  is  said  to  be 
calf-kneed. 

19.  In  Fig.  6  (a)  is  shown  a  side  view  of  the  correct  position 
of  the  hind  legs  of  a  horse  when  standing.  It  can  be  seen  that 
the  hind  cannons  are  perpendicular,  and  if  a  straightedge  were 
placed  at  the  rear  of  the  cannons,  as  indicated  by  the  line, 
it  would  strike  the  point  of  the  buttocks.  In  (b),  (c),  and  (d) 
are  illustrated  undesirable  conformations  of  the  hind  legs. 
Hocks  such  as  those  shown  in  (b)  are  known  as  sickle  hocks, 
and  are  predisposed  to  curbs.  In  the  position  shown  in  (c) 
the  legs  are  set  back  too  far.  Although  the  position  shown 
in  (d)  fills  the  requirements  of  having  the  cannons  and  the 
point  of  the  buttock  on  a  perpendicular  line,  the  croup  is  too 
short  and  drooping  and  hence  gives  the  legs  a  poor  set;  a 
horse  with  such  a  conformation  would  have  a  very  short  stride. 

20.  A  horse  that  is  correctly  proportioned  should  be  longer 
from  the  rear  of  the  loin  to  the  point  of  the  buttock  than  the 
total  length  of  back  and  loin.  The  hind  flank  should  be  well 
let  down  and  deep;  however,  the  different  classes  vary  some- 
what in  this  respect,  draft  horses  being  relatively  deeper  in 
the  flank  than  light  horses.  The  head  should  be  attached 
to  the  neck  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a  poise  of  dignity ;  the  neck 
should  be  elevated  from  the  shoulders  and  have  a  good  crest 
development,  although  this  varies  in  different  classes. 


18  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

21.  Having  completed  the  inspection  from  the  side,  the 
judge  should  next  step  to  the  front  of  the  animal.  From  this 
view  he  can  scrutinize  the  general  bearing,  the  proportion  of 
parts,  the  straightness  of  the  fore  legs,  the  width  of  the  chest, 
and  the  spring  of  the  ribs. 

From  the  front  the  fore  legs  should  appear  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  7  (a).  The  toes  should  point  straight  forwards,  turning 
neither  in  nor  out,  and  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  bisect  the  knee,  cannon,  fetlock,  and 
toe.  In  (b),  (c)  (d),  and  (e)  are  shown  conformations  that 
are  frequently  found,  and  all  of  which  are  undesirable.  A 
horse  with  the  fore  legs  in  the  position  shown  in  (6)  is  almost 
certain  to  wing  out,  or  paddle,  when  moving;  one  with  the  fore- 
legs as  shown  in  (c)  will  likely  interfere. 

The  ribs  should  be  long  and  well  sprung,  arching  out  well 
from  the  spinal  column  and  carrying  their  curvature  all  the 
way  down.     If  a  cross-section  were  made  at  the  rear  of  the 


(c) 


withers  the  outline  should  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  (a)  being 
that  of  a  typical  drafter,  (b)  that  of  a  coach  horse,  and  (c)  that 
of  a  road  or  a  saddle  horse. 

22.  Passing  from  the  front  of  the  animal,  the  judge  should 
next  take  his  position  at  the  side  opposite  the  one  from  which 
the  horse  was  first  viewed,  and  make  a  similar  inspection  to  that 
of  the  first  position.  He  should  then  proceed  to  the  rear  of  the 
horse.  From  the  rear  it  is  possible  to  observe  the  spring  of 
the  ribs,  the  width  of  the   barrel,  the  width  and  muscular 


19 


243—34 


20  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

development  of  the  croup  and  thighs,  the  levelness  of  the  hips, 
and  the  position  of  the  hind  legs;  by  raising  the  tail  the  judge 
can  observe  the  muscular  development  of  the  quarters  and  the 
nature  of  the  hocks.  The  proper  conformation  of  all  of  these 
parts  is  described  in  the  score  cards  for  light  and  heavy  horses. 

23.  In  Fig.  9  (a)  is  shown  a  rear  view  of  the  correct  position 
of  the  hind  legs  of  a  horse  when  standing.  A  plumb  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  to  the  ground  bisects 
the  hock,  cannon,  and  foot.  The  positions  shown  in  (b),  (c), 
and  (d)  are  variations  from  the  correct  conformation  and  are 
objectionable.  In  (6),  the  legs  are  set  too  wide  apart;  in  (c), 
they  are  bowed  outwards,  legs  of  this  conformation  being  spoken 
of  as  too  open  at  the  hocks;  in  (d),  the  legs  turn  inwards,  legs 
of  this  conformation  being  said  to  be  cow-hocked. 

24.  Judging  of  Quality. — After  a  judge  has  studied  the 
conformation  of  a  horse  he  should  next  examine  it  for  quality. 
The  degree  of  quality  of  a  horse  may  be  ascertained  by  passing 
the  hand  over  its  body,  particularly  the  legs,  and  noting  the 
fineness  of  hair  and  skin,  the  cleanness  and  firmness  of  bone, 
the  definition  of  the  tendons,  and  the  distinctness  of  the  lines 
showing  the  divisions  of  the  muscles.  Another  index  to  the 
degree  of  quality  is  the  conformation  of  the  joints  of  the  legs; 
in  an  animal  of  quality,  these  should  be  clearly  defined  and  hard 
and  should  not  show  any  fulness. 

25.  Judging  of  Style. — An  important  point  to  note  in  a 
general  examination  of  a  horse  is  its  style.  Style  may  be 
defined  as  an  elegance  of  form  and  a  symmetry  and  blending 
of  all  parts,  both  when  an  animal  is  standing  and  when  it  is 
in  action.  All  horses  should  have  style,  as  it  enhances  their 
commercial  value,  but  style  is  not  the  same  in  all  classes  of 
animals.  For  instance,  style  that  is  considered  appropriate 
for  a  typical  roadster  is  wholly  inappropriate  for  a  park  horse. 
Style  is  judged  by  studying  the  animal  at  rest  and  in  action. 
The  judge  should  note  the  manner  in  which  the  head  and  tail 
are  carried  and  the  grace  and  balance  of  the  action. 

26.  Judging  of  Action. — All  horses  should  have  good  action 
with  reference  to  sureness  of  foot,   effectiveness  in  covering 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  21 

distance,  and  lightness;  the  latter  point  is  important,  because 
horses  with  light  action  suffer  less  from  concussion  than  those 
with  heavy  action.  The  walk  should  be  with  a  long,  firm, 
quick  step,  the  horse  flashing  the  soles  of  the  feet  up  to  view, 
and  raising  its  feet  high  enough  to  clear  any  obstacle  over 
which  it  may  be  passing. 

In  judging  of  action,  the  judge  should  observe  a  horse  from 
the  front  as  it  comes  toward  him,  to  note  whether  there  is  any 
winging  in  or  out  of  the  front  feet,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  knees  are  carried  forwards.  As  the  horse  approaches, 
the  judge  should  step  to  the  side  and  observe  the  length  of  the 
stride,  the  flexion  of  the  knee  and  hock,  and  the  levelness  of 
the  action.  A  horse  is  said  not  to  be  level  in  its  action  when  it 
is  unbalanced,  that  is,  when  it  lifts  the  feet  relatively  higher 
in  front  than  behind,  or  vice  versa,  or  is  uneven  in  its  stride. 
Some  horses  have  difficulty  in  getting  their  front  feet  out  of 
the  way  of  their  hind  ones,  and  others  have  a  short  stride  in 
the  hind  feet.  In  observing  the  levelness  of  action  the  judge 
should  not  stand  too  close  to  the  horse,  as  this  point  can  best 
be  observed  at  some  distance  to  the  side. 

As  the  horse  passes,  the  judge  should  step  behind  it  and 
observe  the  action  from  the  rear.  From  this  position  he  can 
see  the  manner  in  which  the  hind  feet  are  carried.  The  hind 
feet  should  be  carried  forwards  in  line  with  the  front  ones 
and  neither  close  enough  together  to  cause  interfering,  or 
extremely  wide  apart ;  the  hocks  should  be  well  flexed  and  well 
directed  without  any  unusual  widening,  and  the  soles  of  the 
feet  made  plainly  visible  at  every  step. 

A  horse  should  strike  the  ground  with  the  heel  slightly 
before  it  does  with  the  toe,  and  there  should  be  no  hesitancy 
in  allowing  the  foot  to  strike  the  ground;  a  hesitancy  in  this 
is  an  indication  of  soreness.  Soreness  of  feet  or  of  shoulders 
results  in  a  shortening  of  the  stride  and  is  usually  more  notice- 
able at  the  trot  than  at  the  walk.  In  walking  rapidly,  a  horse 
should  place  the  hind  feet  in  advance  of  the  tracks  of  the 
front  ones,  although  this  is  not  the  case  at  a  slow  walk.  Horses 
with  pigeon  toes  usually  wing  out;  those  with  a  conformation 
known  as  splay-footed  (toes  turned  out)  usually  wing  in  and 


22  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

frequently  interfere.  There  should  be  no  hitching,  scalping 
(striking  the  hind  pastern  or  shin  against  the  front  toe  as  the 
hind  foot  is  extended),  speedy  cutting  (striking  the  inside  of 
the  hind  cannon  or  pastern  against  the  front  foot  as  the  hind 
foot  is  brought  forward  and  passes  on  the  outside  of  the  front 
one),  or  cross-firing,  which  occurs  only  with  pacers. 

27.  Judging  of  Temperament. — An  important  point  to 
consider  in  the  judging  of  horses  is  temperament.  A  horse 
that  is  otherwise  valuable  may  be  unsafe  and  unreliable  on 
account  of  having  an  undesirable  temperament.  The  most 
distinctive  temperaments  in  horses  are  the  nervous,  the  lym- 
phatic, the  sanguine,  the  bilious,  and  the  erratic;  these,  with 
modifications  and  combinations,  make  a  great  variety.  Some- 
times it  is  difficult  to  judge  of  a  horse's  temperament  in  a 
general  examination,  but,  as  a  rule,  if  the  horse  is  thoroughly 
exercised  to  show  its  action  a  good  idea  may  be  had  of  its 
temperament. 

The  term  nervous  temperament  is  applied  to  a  temperament 
in  which  the  nervous  system  is  developed  in  proportion  to  the 
muscular  system  and  hence  able  to  stimulate  the  latter  to  the 
performance  of  work.  A  horse  of  nervous  temperament 
exhibits  the  fact  by  being  a  willing  worker  and  is  not  lacking 
in  nervous  control.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  term  nervous 
temperament  does  not  apply  to  temperaments  that  are  excitable 
or  lacking  in  nervous  control  although  it  is  sometimes  mis- 
applied in  this  sense.  In  contrast  to  the  nervous  temperament 
is  the  lymphatic  temperament,  a  condition  in  which  the  nervous 
system  is  not  developed  in  proportion  to  the  muscular  system. 
A  horse  of  this  temperament  usually  lacks  zest  and  spirit  in 
its  work,  a  condition  that  is  probably  due  to  insufficient  nervous 
stimulation;  a  horse  of  lymphatic  temperament  is  said  to  be 
lazy.  A  sanguine  temperament  is  one  resulting  from  appar- 
ently perfect  health,  and  finds  expression  in  kindness  of  dis- 
position and  a  willingness  to  work.  A  horse  with  a  sanguine 
temperament  has  marked  vitality  and  energy,  and  shows  no 
irritability  or  lack  of  nervous  control.  In  contrast  to  the 
sanguine    temperament    is    the    bilious    temperament,    which 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  23 

reflects  itself  in  an  ill  temper,  largely  due  to  a  poor  nutritive 
condition  of  the  body,  often  caused  by  indigestion.  An  erratic 
temperament  results  from  irritating  a  nervous  temperament  or 
never  teaching  the*  animal  to  control  it.  Erratic  temperament 
often  exhibits  itself  in  some  form  of  vice  or  in  uncontrollable 
temper.  

DETAILED  EXAMINATION 

28.  A  judge  usually  has  two  objects  in  view  in  making  a 
detailed  examination  of  a  horse.  He  is  desirous,  first,  of  ascer- 
taining the  merits  of  the  different  parts  as  to  conformation  and 
quality,  and,  second,  of  determining  whether  any  unsoundness 
exists.  Although  one  detailed  examination  is  usually  sufficient 
to  cover  both  points,  it  is  desirable,  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
to  discuss  the  subject  as  if  two  examinations  were  made,  that 
is,  as  if  conformation  and  quality  of  the  parts  were  judged 
at  one  examination  and  the  soundness  at  another.  The 
examination  for  unsoundness  will  be  discussed  last. 

In  beginning  a  detailed  study  of  a  horse  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
adopt  a  regular  system  of  examination,  in  order  that  no  points 
may  be  overlooked.  Most  judges  start  at  the  head  and  neck 
and  pass,  in  turn,  to  the  forequarters,  the  body,  and  the  hind- 
quarters. The  various  parts  of  these  regions  are  examined 
in  detail,  and  then  the  regions  as  a  whole  are  studied. 

29.  Examination  of  the  Head  and  Neck. — The  head  is  an 
important  point  of  study  in  judging  a  horse,  because  its  shape 
gives  expression  to  the  countenance,  which  is  usually  indicative 
of  the  degree  of  intelligence  and  the  nature  of  the  disposition. 
The  head  should  be  of  moderate  size,  with  clean-cut  features, 
and  be  in  proper  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body.  A  profile 
view  should  show  a  comparatively  heavy  jaw  that  tapers  to  a 
refined  but  not  delicate  muzzle.  The  forehead  should  be  broad 
and  high,  indicating  intelligence,  and  should  not  recline  or 
protrude;  a  reclining  forehead  indicates  timidity  and  one  that 
protrudes  indicates  a  headstrong  and  stubborn  disposition. 
The  face  line  from  the  poll  to  the  end  of  the  nose  should  be 
comparatively   straight   as   viewed   from   the   side;   however, 


24 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§3- 


horses  of  different  breeds  and  different  sexes  vary  somewhat 
in  this  respect.  As  a  rule,  stallions  more  often  have  Roman 
noses  and  mares  are  inclined  to  have  dished  faces.  The  face 
line  should  incline  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 

The  eyes  should  be  large  and  set  so  that  they  are  neither 
sunken  nor  protuding,  correctly  proportioned  between  the  poll 
and  the  end  of  the  muzzle;  and  placid  in  expression,  which  is 
indicative  of  a  sanguine  temperament.     When  the  eyes  are 


Fig.  10 

properly  placed,  a  horse  is  able  to  see  to  the  front  and  to  the 
side  without  turning  its  head.  The  face  should  be  clean  cut 
and  free  of  all  meatiness,  this  condition  indicating  quality; 
the  nostrils  should  be  large,  which  is  indicative  of  good  wind, 
and  when  they  are  distended  they  should  be  nearly  circular 
in  form;  the  lips  should  be  broad,  which  indicates  good  feeding 
qualities.  The  head  should  be  wide  between  the  angle  of  the 
jaw  bones;  this  helps  to  give  shape  and  finish,  and  allows 
plenty  of  room  for  the  windpipe,  throat,  and  larynx.     The  ears 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  25 

should  be  active,  refined,  pointed,  carried  erect,  and  not  set 
too  far  apart.  The  cars  arc  expressive  of  many  qualities  about 
the  horse.  Lop  ears  indicate  laziness  or  lassitude,  and  ears 
that  are  carried  erect  but  motionless  arc  indicative  of  defective 
hearing  or  total  deafness.  If  one  ear  is  carried  forwards  and 
the  other  one  back,  with  an  occasional  shifting  of  these  positions, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  inspect  the  eyes;  these  are  likely  to  be  found 
defective.  Extreme  soreness  of  one  or  both  front  feet  is  usually 
shown  by  an  abnormal  carriage  of  the  ears. 

The  neck  should  be  of  good  length  and  in  proportion  to  the 
■body;  it  should  be  deep  where  it  joins  the  shoulders,  gradually 
tapering  toward  the  head,  which  should  be  neatly  attached. 
The  throat  latch  should  be  neatly  turned  and  free  from,  coarse- 
ness. The  crest  should  be  well  developed,  with  a  gradual 
swell  from  the  withers  to  the  poll  and  no  tendency  toward  a 
depression  in  front  of  the  withers,  a  conformation  known  as 
ewe  neck.     A  neck  of  this  conformation  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  10. 

30.  Examination  of  the  Forequarters. — Passing  from  the 
head  and  neck,  the  judge  should  next  study  the  forequarters. 
The  shoulders  should  be  long,  obliquely  set,  and  neatly  finished 
at  the  withers.  Oblique  shoulders  usually  accompany  a  short 
back.  The  shoulders  should  be  more  obliquely  set  in  light 
horses  than  in  draft  horses,  as  obliquity  of  the  shoulders  gives 
freedom  of  movement.  The  arms  should  be  heavily  muscled 
and  in  draft  horses  should  lie  somewhat  more  horizontal  than 
in  light  horses.  The  elbows  should  lie  near  the  body,  but  not 
so  close  as  to  interfere  with  free,  easy  movement;  ordinarily, 
there  should  be  about  room  enough  to  insert  the  hand.  The 
forearms  should  be  heavily  muscled  near  the  body,  and  the 
length  should  be  equal  to  that  from  the  knee  to  the  ground; 
the  knee  should  be  large,  well  defined,  and  indicative  of  strength ; 
and  the  tendons  should  stand  back  well  from  the  bone  and  not 
be  tied  in  below  the  knee,  which  is  indicative  of  weakness. 
The  cannons  should  be  wide  and  rather  flat  as  viewed  from  the 
side,  the  width  being  attained  by  the  distance  the  tendons 
stand  back  from  the  bones.  Horses  of  different  breeds  vary 
greatly  in  this  respect,  the  cannons  of  some  being  nearly  round 


26  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

and  those  of  others  somewhat  flat.     The  cannons  should  be 
clean,  smooth,  and  free  from  splints  and  other  blemishes. 

The  fetlocks  should  be  broad,  as  viewed  from  the  side,  and 
free  from  puffmess.  The  pasterns  should  be  moderately  long 
and  obliquely  set,  about  45  degrees  being  considered  best.  The 
feet  should  be  large,  with  dense,  waxy  horn,  indicating  strength, 
and  there  should  be  no  cracks  or  evidence  of  weakness  or 
brittleness;  the  heels  should  be  wide  and  in  height  about 
one-half  the  length  of  the  toe;  the  frogs  should  be  large  and 
elastic.  Dark-colored  horn  is  preferred  to  light  because  it  is 
usually  tougher.  The  pasterns  and  feet  should  be  neatly 
joined,  blending  into  each  other  without  any  undue  prominence 
at  the  hoof  head  or  coronet,  which  should  be  large.  The  line 
of  the  toe  should  carry  out  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the 
pastern  when  properly  set.  The  feet  should  gradually  spread 
from  the  coronet,  increasing  in  size  toward  the  bottom.  The 
front  feet  are  larger  and  more  circular  in  shape  than  the  hind 
ones,  which  are  longer  and  not  so  broad.  The  soles  should 
be  convex  and  the  heels  high  and  wide,  to  give  ample  room  for 
large  frogs.  The  walls  should  be  heavy  and  the  bars  strong; 
these  should  not  be  pared  out  at  the  time  of  shoeing. 

31.  Examination  of  the  Body. — After  judging  the  fore- 
quarters  the  judge  should  proceed  to  the  body.  The  withers 
should  be  well  muscled  and  well  finished  at  the  top.  The  chest 
should  be  deep  and  capacious,  indicating  well-developed  vital 
organs,  and  should  have  good  length  and  width — broad  from 
elbow  to  elbow.  The  floor  of  the  chest  should  be  well  let  down 
between  the  front  legs  and  extend  forwards,  thus  giving  a  prom- 
inent breast.  The  ribs  should  be  long,  well  sprang,  and  close 
together.  The  back  should  be  straight,  short,  broad,  and 
heavily  muscled,  and  the  loins  wide,  short,  and  thick.  The 
bottom  line  should  be  long,  with  a  flank  that  is  full  and  well  let 
down  but  of  slightly  less  depth  than  the  rest  of  the  body. 

32.  Examination  of  the  Hindquarters. — The  last  region  to 
be  considered  in  a  detailed  examination  of  a  horse  is  the  hind- 
quarters. The  hindquarters  include  the  hips,  croup,  tail, 
thighs,  quarters,  gaskins,  hocks,  hind  cannons,  hind  fetlocks, 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  27 

hind  pastcms,  and  hind  feet.  The  croup  should  be  long,  wide, 
and  muscular  and  carry  its  width  out  well  to  the  point  of  the 
buttocks;  it  should  not  be  too  drooping,  as  a  drooping  croup 
is  unsightly  and  not  conducive  to  good  action.  The  hips, 
which  are  prominences  of  the  pelvis  for  the  attachment  of 
muscles,  should  be  broad  but  not  prominent  and  in  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  body;  broad,  high  hips  give  a  ragged  and 
unkempt  appearance  to  a  horse.  The  thighs  and  quarters 
should  be  deep,  well  developed,  and  heavily  muscled;  the 
quarters  should  not  be  split  too  high.  The  gaskins  should  be 
short  in  draft  horses  but  a  little  longer  in  light  horses;  they 
should  taper  in  width  from  above  to  the  hocks.  The  hocks 
should  be  sound,  free  from  puffincss,  and  long,  with  more 
width  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  as  viewed  from  the  side. 
The  hind  cannons  should  be  comparatively  short,  broad,  and 
smooth,  and  when  viewed  from  the  side  should  have  as  much 
width  just  beneath  the  hock  as  near  the  fetlock.  The  fetlock 
should  be  wide,  straight,  and  strong.  The  hind  pasterns 
should  be  strong  and  sloping;  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  be 
as  sloping  as  the  front  pasterns,  but  they  should  have  no 
tendency  toward  straightness.  The  hind  feet  should  be  as 
described  for  the  front  feet. 


EXAMINATION  FOR  UNSOUNDNESS 

33.  In  making  an  examination  for  unsoundness  it  should 
be  the  purpose  of  a  judge  merely  to  ascertain  whether  an 
unsoundness  exists;  if  any  unsoundness  is  found  it  is  not 
necessary  for  the  judge  to  determine  its  cause.  As  a  rule, 
the  common  unsoundness  can  be  readily  detected  after  a  little 
practice,  although,  in  some  cases,  the  skill  of  a  competent  vet- 
erinarian is  taxed  in  determining  whether  or  not  a  particular 
condition  is  an  unsoundness  or  likely  to  result  in  an  unsound- 
ness. In  order  for  a  person  to  become  accurate  in  detecting 
unsoundness,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  he  have  a  knowledge 
of  the  normal  condition  of  the  parts  likely  to  be  affected.  This 
knowledge  can  best  be  secured  by  observing  the  conformation 
and  performance  of  different  animals. 


28  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

34.  Preliminary  Examination  in  the  Barn. — Some  horse 
dealers  practice  trickery  and  deception  to  mislead  a  prospec- 
tive customer,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  a  good  plan  to  see  a 
horse  in  its  stall,  if  possible,  when  the  owner  is  not  present. 
Unless  the  horse  can  be  seen  unmolested  in  the  stall,  some 
conditions  may  exist  that  may  never  be  discovered  until  too 
late  for  the  knowledge  to  be  of  any  value.  All  appliances  and 
devices  used  for  correcting  vices  and  bad  habits,  the  position 
of  the  horse's  legs,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  stands  in  the 
stall  should  be  observed.  If  most  of  the  weight  in  front  is 
always  borne  on  one  foot  and  the  other  foot  is  extended  for- 
wards, it  suggests  soreness  or  lameness  in  the  extended  foot 
or  leg;  if  the  position  of  the  legs  is  changed,  first  one  being 
forwards  and  then  the  other,  there  may  be  soreness  in  both. 
The  position  of  the  hind  legs  is  not  so  indicative  of  an  affection, 
as  it  is  natural  for  a  horse  to  rest  one  of  the  hind  legs  by  flexing 
it  and  bearing  the  weight  on  the  toe.  If  it  is  observed  that 
a  horse  rests  only  one  of  the  hind  legs  and  not  the  other,  the 
indications  are  that  something  may  be  wrong  with  the  hock 
of  the  leg  that  is  rested — likely  it  may  have  a  spavin. 

Weaving,  that  is,  continually  swaying  back  and  forth  in 
the  stall,  is  a  vice  and  also  an  unsoundness.  The  continual 
exertion  fatigues  a  horse  and  renders  it  unfit  for  hard  service. 
If  weaving  is  not  detected  in  the  stall,  the  chances  are  against 
its  being  discovered  in  time  to  protect  the  purchaser. 

The  condition  of  the  manger  and  wall  in  front  of  a  horse 
should  be  noted  for  signs  of  cribbing.  A  horse  that  cribs 
usually  takes  hold  of  some  object  with  its  teeth,  such  as  the 
edge  of  the  manger,  and  draws  in  wind;  it  may  crib  by  simply 
placing  the  muzzle  against  the  wall  or  by  taking  hold  of  the 
halter  strap,  or  even  without  holding  or  touching  anything. 
Cribbing  may  be  detected  also  by  the  condition  of  the  teeth, 
particularly  the  way  in  which  they  have  been  worn;  the  teeth 
can  be  examined  after  the  horse  is  taken  from  the  stall.  To 
prevent  cribbing,  a  strap  is  sometimes  buckled  rather  tightly 
around  the  horse's  neck  near  the  head.  The  presence  of  such 
a  strap  or  its  marks  on  the  hair  where  it  has  been  worn  should 
be  readily  interpreted  as  indicating  that  the  horse  is  a  cribber. 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  29 

The  way  in  which  the  horse  lifts  its  hind  feet  as  it  is  made 
to  stand  from  one  side  of  the  stall  to  the  other  should  be 
observed,  the  judge  noting  evidence  of  string  halt,  a  con- 
vulsive flexing  of  the  hock.  When  the  horse  is  backed  out  of 
the  stall  it  should  be  noted  whether  or  not  the  hind  feet  are 
picked  up  or  dragged,  and  the  manner  of  handling  the  front 
feet.  A  horse  that  is  subject  to  cramps  drags  the  hind  feet 
or  may  bring  one  foot  up  with  a  jerk;  if  the  horse  is  sore  or 
lame  in  the  shoulders,  the  front  feet  will  be  dragged  instead 
of  being  flexed. 

The  eyes  should  be  examined  as  the  horse  is  taken  from  the 
stall;  the  best  place  for  doing  this  is  in  a  doorway  facing  an 
open  space,  but  not  in  direct  sunlight.  The  eyes  should  be 
bright  and  clear,  and  free  from  a  bluish  or  milky  color,  which 
is  indicative  of  disease.  If  the  vision  is  tested  by  moving 
something  back  and  forth  in  front  of  the  eyes,  an  object  should 
be  used  that  will  not  create  a  perceptible  air  current,  which 
would  cause  blinking.  In  applying  such  a  test  the  judge 
should  stand  at  the  horse's  shoulder  so  that  no  movement 
save  that  of  the  object  may  be  seen  by  the  animal. 

The  teeth  should  also  be  examined  at  this  time,  the  judge 
noting  the  manner  in  which  they  are  worn  and  the  age  of  the 
horse;  the  estimation  of  age  is  explained  later.  If  the  outside 
edges  of  the  incisors  are  worn  round  or  broken  off,  it  is  a  good 
indication  that  the  horse  is  a  cribber.  A  parrot  mouth — one 
in  which  the  upper  jaw  is  longer  than  the  lower — or  an  under- 
shot mouth — one  in  which  the  lower  jaw  is  longer  than  the 
upper — is  a  malformation  and  may  or  may  not  constitute  an 
unsoundness,  depending  on  the  degree  of  the  malformation. 
If  the  upper  and  lower  teeth  come  together  close  enough  that 
the  horse  can  bite  grass  and  shell  corn,  he  is  practically  as 
good  for  service  as  if  he  did  not  have  the  malformation,  and 
therefore  would  be  considered  sound.  The  bars  of  the  jaw — 
the  region  where  the  bridle  bit  rests — and  the  tongue  should 
also  be  noted  to  see  whether  they  are  smooth  and  in  perfect 
condition.  If  the  bars  or  the  tongue  are  lacerated  or  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  are  worn  and  calloused,  it  may  indicate 
that  the  horse  is  a  hard  mouthed  or  foolish  animal,  that  it  is 


30  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

of  erratic  temperament,  that  it  is  a  chronic  lugger  at  the  bit, 
or  that  the  bit  is  too  severe.  The  lining  of  the  nostrils  should 
be  noted;  if  the  horse  is  in  health  this  will  be  of  a  pale  pink 
color.  Any  variation  from  this  condition  such  as  a  mottled, 
pale,  or  congested  lining  or  an  unusual  discharge  should  be 
considered  with  suspicion. 

35.  General  Examination  Outside  the  Barn. — After  a  pre- 
liminary examination  of  a  horse  has  been  made  in  the  barn, 
the  animal  should  be  examined  thoroughly  outdoors  in  a  good 
light,  the  horse  being  stood  on  level  ground  in  a  normal  posi- 
tion. At  first  the  judge  should  stand  a  few  steps  away  and 
take  a  general  survey  of  the  animal  from  a  number  of  different 
angles.  In  this  general  survey  the  unsoundness  that  can 
usually  be  easily  seen,  such  as  fistulous  withers,  sweeny,  shoe 
boils,  large  splints,  side  bones,  curbs,  spavins,  buck  knees,  etc., 
should  be  noted  if  present;  these  are  explained  later.  If  the 
general  examination  is  carefully  made  the  judge  should  have  a 
good  idea  of  the  soundness  of  the  animal  before  proceeding 
with  the  detailed  examination. 

36.  Examination  of  the  Head  and  Neck. — In  making  a 
detailed  examination  for  unsoundness,  a  judge  should  follow 
some  definite  system.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  begin  at  the  head 
and  neck  and  examine,  in  turn,  the  forequarters,  the  body, 
and  the  hindquarters.  Starting  with  the  head,  the  judge 
should  note  both  sides  of  the  face  for  scars  of  trephining  for 
the  removal  of  molar  teeth.  Although  these  scars  do  not 
necessarily  indicate  an  unsoundness,  they  do  indicate  that 
the  teeth  have  been  in  bad  condition,  probably  through  decay. 
The  breath  of  the  horse  should  be  noted  to  ascertain  whether 
it  has  a  bad  odor,  which  is  often  indicative  of  decaying  teeth. 
The  hand  should  be  carefully  passed  over  the  poll  from  behind 
the  ears  to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  enlargement,  scars, 
tenderness,  or  a  fistulous  condition  called  poll  evil.  Poll  evil 
is  evidenced  by  running  sores,  and  always  constitutes  an 
unsoundness. 

37.  Examination  of  the  Forequarters. — In  an  examination 
of  the  forequarters  the  judge  should  look  for  fistula  at  the 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  31 

withers,  sweeny  of  the  shoulder  muscles,  shoe  boils  on  the  points 
of  the  elbows,  faulty  conformation  of  the  knees,  splints  on  the 
cannon  bones,  bowed  tendons  back  of  the  cannon  bones,  wind 
galls  at  the  fetlocks,  ringbones  on  the  pastern  bones,  side  bones 
at  the  sides  of  the  coffin  bones,  and  laminitis  ox  founder,  thrush, 
contracted  heels,  and  quarter  cracks  and  sand  cracks  in  the  feet. 

Fistula  is  manifested  by  a  running  sore  in  the  region  of  the 
withers;  it  may  be  caused  by  a  badly  fitting  collar,  a  bruise, 
a  faulty  conformation  of  the  withers,  or  various  other  causes. 
Fistula,  like  poll  evil,  always  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 
If  fistula  has  entirely  healed  and  the  muscles  have  assumed 
their  normal  size  and  shape,  it  is  only  a  blemish;  however, 
because  of  the  tenderness  of  the  parts,  the  animal  is  susceptible 
for  a  time  to  a  return  of  the  trouble  and  may  again  become 
unsound. 

A  shoulder  sweeny  is  a  depression  over  the  shoulder  blade 
due  to  a  wasting  away,  or  atrophy,  of  the  muscles.  It  usually 
causes  more  or  less  lameness  and  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 
Some  horses  have  heavier  muscles  over  the  spine  of  the  shoulder 
blade  than  others,  consequently  it  may  be  necessary  to  com- 
pare the  right  shoulder  with  the  left  in  order  to  determine 
whether  there  has  been  a  slight  atrophy. 

A  shoe  boil  is  a  bruise  at  the  point  of  the  elbow  that  results 
in  an  abscess ;  it  is  caused  by  an  animal  lying  on  one  of  its  fore 
feet  in  such  a  way  that  the  heel  of  the  shoe  strikes  the  elbow. 

Faulty  conformation  of  the  knees  may  or  may  not  be  an 
unsoundness,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  discretion  in  deciding 
this  point.  Buck  knees,  which  are  knees  that  are  bent  for- 
wards when  the  animal  is  standing,  are  congenital  and  should 
not  be  confused  with  sprung  knees,  which  are  knees  that  are 
bent  forwards  also  but  which  are  acquired  after  birth,  due  to  a 
relaxation  of  the  extensor  muscles.  Sprung  knees  are  much 
more  serious  than  buck  knees  and  are  always  an  unsoundness. 

Splints  are  tumorous  bony  growths  on  the  cannon  bone, 
occurring  most  often  on  the  front  legs  and  usually  on  the 
inside  of  the  legs,  although  they  may  occur  on  the  outside  as 
well.  Fig.  11  shows  splints  a  and  b  on  the  fore  legs.  Whether 
or  not  a  splint  is  an  unsoundness  depends  on  its  location  and 


32 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


size.  If  it  causes  lameness  it  is  clearly  an  unsoundness,  but 
if  not  it  is  usually  considered  as  a  blemish.  A  high  splint, 
such  as  that  shown  at  b,  is  usually  more  serious  than  a  low 
splint,  and  a  large  splint  is  more  serious  than  a  small  one. 

A  bowed  tendon  is  an  enlarged  tendon  at  the  back  of  a 
cannon  bone,  due  to  an  injury  or  sprain,  and  is  an  unsound- 
ness. It  may  occur  on  either  the  front  or  the  hind  legs.  In 
Fig.  12  is  illustrated  wind  galls  a,  and  a  bowed  tendon  b  on 
the  front  legs. 


Fig.  11 


Fig.  12 


A  wind  gall  is  a  puffiness  about  the  fetlock  joints  on  either 
the  front  or  the  hind  legs.  It  is  considered  only  a  blemish 
when  the  enlargement  is  slight,  but  when  it  is  large  so  that  it 
interferes  with  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  it  is  considered 
an  unsoundness. 

A  ringbone  is  a  tumorous  bony  growth  that  causes  an 
enlargement  on  either  the  upper  or  the  lower  pastern  bone 
and  is  always  considered  an  unsoundness. 

Side  bones  are  ossified  lateral  cartilages  that  attach  them- 
selves to  the  wings  of  the  coffin  bone ;  they  always  constitute  an 
unsoundness.  They  most  often  occur  on  the  front  feet,  and 
more  often  on  heavy  horses  than  on  light  ones.     When  the 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


33 


Fig.  13 


lateral  cartilage  ossifies  it  usually  becomes  enlarged  and  if  the 
coronet  is  free  from  long  hair  the  outline  of  the  cartilage  can 
usually  be  seen,  although  a  manipula- 
tion of  the  hand  is  required  to  determine 
the  state  of  its  development.  Unless  it 
is  hard  and  perfectly  rigid  so  that  it 
cannot  be  moved  laterally,  indicating 
that  it  is  firmly  joined  to  the  coffin 
bone,  it  has  not  reached  the  state  of  a 
side  bone,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  it 
has  become  enlarged  the  market  usually  a\ 
considers  it  an  unsoundness.  In 
Fig.  13  is  illustrated  a  ringbone  a  and 
a  side  bone  b  on  the  fore  legs. 

Laminitis,  commonly  called  founder,  is  an  inflammation  of 
the  sensitive  laminas  of  the  feet  that  causes  lameness,  and 
always  constitutes  an  unsoundness.  It  may  be  due  to  over- 
feeding on  grain,  to  giving  too  much  water  when  the  horse  is 
hot,  to  hard  driving,  or  to  paring  the  sole  of  the  foot  too  thin 
and  allowing  the  sole  to  drop.  Opinions  may  differ  as  to 
whether  or  not  slight  inflammation  and  tenderness  exists. 
Founder  in  an  advanced  stage  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  14 
(a)  and  (6). 

Thrush  is  a  diseased  condition  of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  occur- 
ring either  around  the  margin  of  the  frog  or  in  the  cleft,  and 
invariably  makes  its  presence  known  by  a  disagreeable  odor. 
It  is  not  usually  considered  an  unsoundness  unless  it  has 
reached  such  a  state  as  to  cause  lameness. 


Fig.  14 


Contracted  heels  arc  not  necessarily  an  unsoundness,  although 
their  presence  may  indicate  that  unsoundness  is  likely  to  occur. 


34 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


Fig.  15  (a)  shows  contracted  heels;  (b)  shows  heels  that  are 

desirable. 

Quarter  cracks  and  sand  cracks,  which  are  splits  in  the 

hoof,  are  unsoundnesses 
when  they  cause  lameness. 
A  quarter  crack  is  one  that 
begins  at  the  coronet  in  the 
quarter  of  the  hoof  and 
extends  downwards.  A 
sand  crack  is  one  that 
begins  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hoof,  usually  in  the  middle, 
Fig.  16  (a)  shows  a  quarter  crack  and 


Fig.  15 


and  extends  upwards. 
(b)  a  sand  crack. 

38.  Examination  of  the  Body. — The  examination  of  the 
body  can  be  briefly  made,  as  there  are  but  few  unsoundnesses 
that  manifest  themselves  in  this  region.  The  loins  should  be 
examined  for  soreness  or  weakness.  If  no  soreness  or  weak- 
ness is  present  the  animal  will  respond  to  the  touch,  but  if 
either  of  these  troubles  exist  the  muscles  will  be  held  rigid 
when  they  are  pinched.  A  weak  loin  may  be  detected  also 
bv  raising  the  horse's  tail;  if  the  loin  is  weak,  little  resistance 
will  be  encountered.  The  movement  of  the  flanks  as  the 
horse  exhales  should  be  observed  for  signs  of  heaves.  If  the 
horse  has  heaves  there  will  be  a  sort  of  double  action.  Heaves 
always  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 

39.  Examination  of  the  Hindquarters. — The  unsound- 
nesses that  pertain  to  the  hindquarters  are:  hipped  condition, 


(a)  Fig.  16  (b) 

hip  sweeny,  dislocated  patella,  bone  spavin,  bog  spavin,  thorough- 
pin,  curb,  capped  hock,  salandcrs,  Michigan  pad,  and  grease. 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


35 


By  a  hipped  condition  is  meant  that  the  point  of  the  ilium 
has  been  broken  off  or  injured  in  such  a  way  that  one  hip 
appears  lower  than  the  other.  Commercially,  it  is  considered 
an  unsoundness;  however,  if  lameness  is  not  present  it  may 
not  interfere  with  a  horse's  service. 

Hip  sweeny  is  an  atrophy  of  the  hip  muscles  that  causes  a 
depression  on  one  side  of  the  rump. 

A  dislocation  of  the  patella  is  manifested,  of  course,  in 
the  region  of  the  stifle.  As  long  as  the  patella  is  dislocated 
the  horse  is  unable  to  carry  the  leg  forwards  and  when  moved 
will  likely  go  on  three  legs,  dragging  the  affected  leg  on  the 
toe;  or  there  may  be  a  dislocation  and  return  of  the  patella 
at  almost  every  step.  Such  a  condition  is  more  frequent  in 
young  horses  than  in  old  ones,  and  sometimes  is  brought  on  by 
weakness  following  debilitating  ailments. 

Bone  spavin,  bog  spavin,  thoroughpin,  curb,  and  capped 
hock  are  unsoundness  that  may  be  found  in  the  hocks.  A 
bone  spavin  is  a  tumorous,  bony  growth  that  usually  occurs 
on  the  front  and  angle  of  the  hock  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
cannon  bone,  although  it  may  occur  on  the  outside  as  well. 
It  usually  involves  the  small  bones  forming  the  hock  joint  as 
well  as  the  cannon  bone  and  causes 
an  enlargement  that  is  readily 
detected;  however,  cases  occur  of 
occult,  or  blind  spavin,  that  is,  spavin 
that  is  not  visible  and  only  the 
symptoms  of  spavin  are  present. 
The  natural  conformation  of  some 
hocks  is  coarse,  and  in  this  case  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine, 
if  there  is  no  lameness,  whether  a 
slight  enlargement  is  natural  or  is 
abnormal  on  account  of  a  diseased 
condition.  Bone  spavin  always 
causes  more  or  less  lameness  during 
its  development,  due  to  the  articular 
surfaces  becoming  disorganized.  It  impedes  the  flexing  of  the 
hock,  and  the  step  is  usually  shortened  and  the  weight  of  the 

243—35 


Fie.  17 


36 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


body  is   quickly   displaced  from  the  affected  limb.     A  bone 
spavin  a  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  17. 

A  bog  spavin  occurs  on  the  front  inner  side  of  the  hock  and 
is  a  similar  condition  to  a  thoroughpin,  the  only  difference 
being  in  the  location.  A  thoroughpin  is  a  soft  enlargement 
that  occurs  in  the  web  of  the  hock  between  the  point  of  the 
hock  and  the  main  leg  bone.  It  is  an  enlarged  or  distended 
bursa  filled  with  synovia,  or  joint  fluid,  and  may  be  apparent 
on  either  the  inside  or  the  outside  of  the  hock  or  extend  through 
the  web  from  the  outside  to  the  inside.     When  pressed  on 


Fig.  18 

from  either  inside  or  outside  it  will  show  on  the  opposite  side. 
Large  thoroughpins  and  bog  spavins  constitute  unsoundnesses. 
Heavy  horses  are  more  subject  to  these  disorders  than  are  light 
ones,  although  the  condition  is  as  serious  for  one  as  it  is  for  the 
other.  Fig.  18  (a)  shows  a  bog  spavin  a ;  (b)  shows  a  thorough- 
pin a  as  seen  from  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and  a  thoroughpin  b 
as  seen  from  the  inside. 

A  curb  is  a  hard  swelling  or  bulging  at  the  back  side  of  the 
hock  joint,  due  to  an  injury  or  sprain  of  a  ligament.  Legally 
it  always  constitutes  an  unsoundness,  though  where  it  is  small 
and  on  a  well-formed  hock  it  may  or  may  not  interfere  with 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


37 


the  service  of  the  horse.  A  rounding  or  sickle  hock  is  more 
subject  to  curb  than  one  whose  posterior  side  is  perfectly 
straight.     A  curb  is  illustrated  at  a  in  Fig.  19. 

A  capped  hock  is  the  result  of  an  injury  bruising  the  bursa 
at  the  point  of  the  hock,  and  does  not  ordinarily  interfere 
with  the  horse's  action  or  ability  to  work,  unless  it  involves 
the  synovial  sac,  which  intervenes  between  the  tendon  and 
the  point  of  the  bone  where  the  one  passes  over  the  other. 
Only  in  rare  cases,  such  as  when  there  is  inflammation  and 
swelling  that  is  painful  to  the  animal,  is  a  capped  hock  con- 
sidered an  unsoundness.     A  capped  hock  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  20 


Salanders  is  a  skin  disease  that  occurs  in  the  front  of  the 
hock,  due  to  heavy  feeding  of  nutritious  feed  with  an  insuffi- 
cient amount  of  exercise,  and  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 
A  similar  condition,  called  malanders,  sometimes  occurs  on  the 
front  legs  at  the  back  of  the  knee  in  the  folds  of  the  skin. 

Michigan  pad  is  a  puff,  or  cushion,  due  to  an  enlarged 
bursa;  it  occurs  just  below  the  hock  on  the  outside  of  the 
cannon  near  the  forward  edge.  It  does  not  produce  lameness 
and  it  is  only  a  blemish. 

Grease  is  a  skin  disease  that  may  occur  either  in  the  hind 
heels  or  in  the  front,  and  constitutes  an  unsoundness.     The 


38  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

hind  feet  are  subject  to  laminitis,  thrush,   and  quarter  and 
sand  cracks;  these  have  already  been  explained. 

40.  Examination  of  the  Action. — A  horse  should  be 
examined  in  action,  and  by  watching  every  movement,  slight 
defects  of  conformation  that  may  have  been  passed  unnoticed 
should  be  detected.  The  animal  should  be  walked  directly 
away  from  the  judge  so  that  he  may  note  any  differences  that 
may  exist  in  the  flexion  of  the  hocks.  A  horse  that  has  a  bad 
spavin  is  ordinarily  more  or  less  stiff  in  the  affected  hock,  which 
will  not  be  flexed  so  much  as  the  other.  The  animal  need  not 
be  moved  farther  than  50  yards  and  a  shorter  distance  will 
suffice  where  the  judge  has  become  familiar  in  conducting  such 
examinations.  As  the  animal  turns  the  action  and  flexion  of 
both  hind  legs  should  be  noted  for  evidence  of  string  halt 
and  crampiness. 

The  manner  in  which  the  head  and  ears  are  carried  should 
be  noted.  When  the  horse  is  sound  and  under  normal  con- 
ditions there  is  usually  free  play  of  the  ears  backwards  and 
forwards,  but  if  the  horse  has  defective  sight,  he  exercises  more 
mobility  of  the  ears  and  uses  these  organs  to  help  out  impaired 
vision.  Where  the  sight  is  bad,  one  ear  is  usually  carried 
forwards  and  the  other  back  and  the  head  carried  slightly  to 
one  side,  the  eye  with  the  stronger  vision  being  carried  to  the 
front.  Under  normal  conditions  ears  carried  erect  with  no 
mobility  indicate  defective  hearing  or  deafness,  but  where  a 
horse  is  suffering  severe  pain  or  is  excited  by  anger  or  fear, 
both  ears  may  be  carried  rigid  and  reclining  backwards. 

A  horse  that  is  slightly  lame  or  sore  in  one  of  the  front  feet 
will  nod  its  head  as  it  places  its  weight  on  the  sound  foot;  if 
it  is  lame  in  one  of  its  hind  legs,  the  croup  will  drop  when  the 
weight  is  thrown  on  the  sound  limb.  If  the  horse  is  lame  in 
both  front  legs  or  in  both  hind  legs,  there  will  not  likely  be 
any  nodding  of  the  head  or  dropping  of  the  croup.  The  action 
should  next  be  observed  from  the  side,  the  judge  noting  the 
length  of  stride  and  the  manner  of  extension  and  flexion  of 
the  limbs,  both  front  and  back,  and  any  overreaching,  forging, 
or  inclination  to  stumble.     A  horse  that  is  sore  or  lame  has  a 


§  37  HORSE  JUDGING  39 

short  stride  and  sets  his  feet  down  with  great  care.  The 
animal  should  then  be  trotted  and  the  examiner  should  note 
his  movements  from  the  same  position  as  at  the  walk.  As  a 
rule,  lameness  usually  shows  itself  to  a  more  pronounced  degree 
at  the  trot  than  at  the  walk.  No  whip  or  other  method  of 
exciting  the  animal  should  be  used  or  he  may  not  favor  the 
tender  parts. 

41.  Examination  of  the  Wind. — In  testing  the  wind  of  a 
horse  the  method  employed  should  depend  on  the  kind  of 
work  for  which  the  animal  is  used.  Saddle  horses  should  be 
mounted  and  given  a  sharp  run  of  from  200  to  300  yards. 
As  soon  as  the  animal  is  stopped  the  examiner  should  place 
his  ear  to  the  nostrils  and  note  any  unusual  sounds,  such  as 
whistling,  roaring,  etc.,  and  again  note  the  movements  of  the 
flank  for  indications  of  heaves.  Heavy  horses  may  be  satis- 
factorily tested  by  drawing  heavy  loads;  however,  the  custom- 
ary method  at  the  markets  and  with  most  dealers  is  to  hitch 
them  in  harness  and  gallop  them  to  a  heavy  truck  until  they 
are  winded.  As  soon  as  they  are  checked  the  examiner  should 
at  once  place  his  ear  to  the  nostrils,  for  the  purpose  of  detecting 
whistling,  etc. 

ESTIMATING  OF  AGE 

42.  As  age  is  an  important  factor  in  determining  the 
present  or  future  value  of  a  horse,  a  judge  of  horses  should 
be  able  to  estimate,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy,  the 
age  of  any  horse  that  he  may  be  called  on  to  judge.  A  number 
of  characters  are  influential  in  indicating  age,  and  a  knowledge 
of  these  is  not  difficult  to  secure;  but  skill  in  the  application  of 
this  knowledge  depends  largely  on  continued  practice. 

The  best  index  to  the  age  of  a  horse  is  the  teeth,  yet  there 
are  other  considerations  that  may  be  important,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  a  young  or  very  old  horse.  The  age  of  a  horse 
under  2\  or  3  years  can  usually  be  closely  approximated  by 
the  size  and  general  appearance  of  the  animal.  In  very  old 
horses,  white  hairs  appear  around  the  temples,  the  eyes,  the 
nostrils,  and  elsewhere;  the  poll  is  more  pointed,  the  sides  of 


40  HORSE  JUDGING  §  37 

the  face  are  more  depressed,  and  the  cavities  above  the  eyes 
are  more  hollowed  out  than  in  young  or  middle-aged  horses; 
the  backbone  is  prominent  and  the  back  is  often  swayed,  that 
is,  curved  downwards,  and  the  animal  does  not  stand  squarely 
on  its  feet.  Another  general  indication  of  old  age  is  the  appear- 
ance of  knots,  or  prominences,  on  the  sides  of  the  tail  near  the 
root.  The  first  pair  of  these  knots  usually  appear  when  a 
horse  is  between  13  and  14  years  old,  and  are  due  to  the  flesh 
withering  away,  leaving  the  transverse  processes  of  the  first 
coccygeal  vertebra  prominent.  The  second  pair  of  knots 
usually  appears  when  a  horse  is  between  16  and  17  years  old, 
and  the  third  pair  when  it  is  about  21  years  old;  the  second 
and  third  pairs  of  knobs  are  due  to  the  transverse  processes  of 
the  second  and  third  coccygeal  vertebras  becoming  prominent. 

In  estimating  the  age  of  a  horse  by  the  teeth,  only  the 
incisors — the  teeth  immediately  within  the  lips — are  con- 
sidered. The  order  in  which  the  incisors  appear  is  an  index 
of  the  age  up  to  5  years;  between  the  ages  of  5  and  8  years  the 
age  is  indicated  by  the  configuration  and  degree  of  wear  of  the 
teeth;  after  a  horse  is  8  years  old  its  age  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  estimate  by  the  teeth,  but  the  configuration  and  degree  of 
wear  are  still  an  index.  Experts  can  approximate  the  age  fairly 
well  until  a  horse  is  about  16  or  17  years  old;  after  this  age  it 
is  impossible  to  estimate  the  age  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

Although  the  teeth  are  considered  the  best  index  of  the  age 
of  a  horse,  they  are  not  absolutely  accurate  in  this  respect 
at  any  age  of,  the  animal.  Much  depends  on  the  condition 
under  which  the  animal  has  been  kept  and  its  individuality. 
In  the  case  of  horses  that  have  bones  of  somewhat  open  struc- 
ture, the  teeth  are  likely  to  indicate  that  the  animals  are  older 
than  they  really  are;  in  the  case  of  horses  whose  bones  are  of 
fine,  close  texture,  the  teeth  may  indicate  that  the  animals 
are  younger  than  they  really  are.  A  horse  fed  on  hard,  dry 
feed  is  likely  to  have  teeth  that  show  more  wear  than  those 
of  a  horse  fed  on  soft,  succulent  feed,  and  consequently  the 
teeth  will  indicate  greater  age.  From  this  it  can  be  seen  that 
the  texture  of  the  bones,  the  kind  of  feed  the  horse  has  eaten, 
and  other  conditions  have  more  or  less  effect  on  the  teeth. 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


41 


Appear  in  S  to*  days 
Appear  in  4  tit  6  weeks 
Appear  in  Sto/Z  months 


43.  Order  of  Appearance  of  the  Teeth. — When  a  colt  is 
foaled  none  of  its  teeth  are  in  sight,  but  the  first,  or  middle, 
pair  of  incisors  in 
both  the  upper  and 
lower  jaws  usually 
appears  in  from  2  to  | 
4  days.  The  second, 
or  intermediate,  pair 
usually  appears  when 
the  colt  is  from  about 
4  to  6  weeks  old,  and  F,G-  21 

the  third,  or  lateral,  pair  when  it  is  from  about  9  to  12  months 
old;  so  that,  as  a  rule,  when  a  colt  is  1  year  old  it  has 
a  complete  set  of  incisors.  These  first  teeth  are  known 
as  temporary,  or  milk,  teeth.  In  Fig.  21  is  illustrated  the 
order  of  appearance  of  the  milk  teeth,  only  the  upper  pairs 
being  shown;  the  lower  pairs,  of  course,  appear  at  practically 
the  same  time  as  the  corresponding  upper  pairs. 

A  colt  retains  all  of  its  milk  teeth  until  it  is  from  about 
2\  to  3  years  old;  at  about  that  age  the  first  pair  of  milk  teeth 
above  and  below  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth.  The 
intermediate  pair  of  permanent  teeth  replace  the  corresponding 
pair  of  milk  teeth  when  the  animal  is  from  about  3|  to  4  years 
old,  and  the  third,  or  lateral,  pair  replace  the  last  pair  of  milk 
teeth  when  the  animal  is  from  4^  to  5  years  old.     Fig.  22 


Appear  in  Zz  to  3 years 
Appear  in  3g  to  ¥  years 
Apprearin  4£  to  S years 


Fig.  22 


shows  the  order  of  appearance  of  the  permanent  incisors,  only 
the  upper  teeth  being  shown. 


42 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


44.  Appearance  of  the  Teeth  at  Different  Ages. — When  a 
colt  is  about  a  week  old,  its  first  pair  of  milk  teeth  appears  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  23,  which  * 

shows  only  the  upper  pair. 


Fig.  23 


Fig.  24 


It  Can  be  seen  that  these  teeth  are  long  from  left  to  right,  and  that 
they  have  well-defined  cups  or  depressions  in  the  ends.  Fig.  24 
shows  the  appearance  of  the  upper  incisors  when  a  colt  is  from 
about  4  to  6  weeks  old,  or  after  the  second  pair  of  milk  teeth 
has  appeared.  At  this  time  the  first,  or  middle  pair  shows 
wear,  the  cups  having  become  somewhat  shallow.  When  a  colt 
is  about  1  }^ear  old,  or  after  the  third  pair  of  milk  teeth  has 
appeared,  the  upper  incisors  appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  25.  At 
this  age  the  cups  of  the  first  and  second  pairs  show  considerable 
wear,  the  cups  of  the  middle  pair  being  faint  in  outline.  From 
the  time  a  colt  is  1  year  old  until  the  first  pair  of  permanent 

incisors  replace  the  corre- 
sponding pair  of  milk  teeth, 
considerable  care  is  re- 
quired to  estimate  the  age 
accurately.  This  can  be 
done  only  by  taking  into 
account  the  degree  of  wear 
of  the  different  pairs.  In 
Fig.  26  is  shown  the  appear- 
ance of  the  upper  incisors 
when  a  colt  is  2  years  old. 
At  this  age  the  cups  in  the 
middle  pair  have  almost  or  entirely  disappeared,  but  a  little 
discoloration  usually  remains  to  mark  their  boundary. 


Fig.  25 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


43 


45.  As  has  already  been  explained,  the  middle  pair  of 
permanent  incisors  appears  in  from  about  2\  to  3  years.  As 
a  rule,  they  appear  in  from  ; 
about  2  years  and  9  months 
to  2  years  and  11  months, 
and  are  fully  out  and  in 
wear  in  3  years.  Fig.  27 
(a)  shows  the  appearance 
of  the  lower  incisors,  if 
normal,  at  this  age;  in  (b) 
is  shown  a  profile  view  of 
the  teeth,  ft  can  be  seen 
that  the  middle  pair  of 
permanent  teeth  are  larger 
than  the  milk  teeth.  There 
is  also  a  difference  in  color, 
the  milk  teeth  being  of  a  fine  white  color  and  the  permanent 
teeth  of  a  slightly  yellowish  tinge.  At  this  age  the  intermediate 
milk  teeth  have  become  worn  down  and  have  lost  all  or  nearly 
all  of  their  cups;  there  is  a  slight  dark  indentation  that  can 
hardly  be  called  a  cup.  In  the  lateral,  or  corner,  teeth  the 
cups  are  greatly  worn.     If  the  colt  is  a  male,  small  caps  called 


Fig.  26 


(a) 


<*) 


Fig.  27 


tusks  may  be  present  or  in  the  process  of  coming  through  the 
jaw  just  back  of  the  corner  teeth. 


44 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


46.     When  about  3£  years  old,  a  horse  loses  the  interme- 
diate pair  of  milk  teeth  above  and  below,  and  these  are  replaced 


(V 


Fig.  28 


by  permanent  teeth;  when  the  animal  is  4  years  old  the  teeth 
will  appear  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  28.  In  (a)  is  shown  a  view 
of  the  lower  incisors  and  in  (6)  a  profile  view  of  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws.  The  middle  incisors  show  more  or  less  wear, 
and  the  last  pair  of  milk  teeth  have  little  left  of  their  cups  but 
a  shallow  indentation.  The  tusks,  if  present,  are  larger  than 
they  were  at  3  years,  but  are  still  sharp  at  the  points. 


(V 


Fig.  29 


47.     At  about  4^  years  of  age,  a  horse  sheds  the  last,  or 
corner,  pair  of  milk  teeth,  and  by  the  time  the  animal  is  5  years 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


45 


old  the  last  permanent  pair  are  up  to  wearing,  so  that  the  horse 
has  a  full  complement  of  permanent  teeth.  The  appearance 
of  the  incisors  at  this 
age  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  29  (a)  and  (b). 
At  this  age  the  middle 
incisors  show  con- 
siderable wear.  They 
have  also  changed  in 
shape,  having  become 
rounder  on  the  inner 
surface.  The  inter- 
mediate incisors  show 


some  wear. 


Fig.  30 


When  the  permanent  incisors  first  appear  they  have  cavities 
or  cups  called  crowns;  these  arc  similar  to  the  cavities  of  the 
milk  teeth  but  arc  deeper.  As  a  horse  becomes  older,  there 
is  a  slight  growth  of  the  teeth  and  a  wearing  away  of  the  crowns. 
The  incisor  teeth  become  longer  and  the  upper  and  lower  sets 
form  an  acute  angle  with  each  other.  When  a  horse  is  6  years 
old  the  middle  pair  of  incisors  have  been  in  wear  3  years  and 
in  that  time  have  grown  out  so  that  the  crowns  are  worn  down 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  cups  have  disappeared  from  the 
lower  pair;  the  cups  disappear  more  rapidly  in  the  lower  than 


(a) 


(b) 


Fig.  31 


in  the  upper  teeth.     The  appearance  of  the  lower  incisors  when 
a  horse  is  6  years  old  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 


46 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


Fig.  32 


48.  At  7  years  of  age  the  cups  have  disappeared  from  the 
lower  intermediate  pair,  although  small  dark  spots  can  often 

be  seen.  The  corner 
teeth  still  retain  their 
cups,  but  show  con- 
siderable wear.  The 
appearance  of  the  in- 
cisors of  a  7-year-old 
horse  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  31.  In  (a)  is 
shown  a  view  of  the 
lower  teeth  and  in  (b) 
a  profile  view  of  both 
jaws.  At  7  years 
notches  appear  in  each  of  the  upper  corner  teeth,  due  to 
uneven  meeting  with  the  corresponding  lower  teeth;  one  of 
these  notches  is  shown  in  the  tooth  a  in  (6).  At  8  years  of  age 
the  notch  in  the  corner  incisors  is  strongly  marked,  and  the 
cups  of  the  lower  incisors  are  usually  entirely  worn  off,  leaving 
the  tables  smooth  or  flat,  although  irregularities  sometimes 
occur  and  slight  cups  may  still  be  present.  At  this  age  the 
teeth  assume  a  somewhat  triangular  shape.  The  appearance 
of  the  lower  incisors  at  8  years  old  is  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

49.  When  a  horse  is  9  years  old  the  cups  should  have 
disappeared  from  the  upper  central  incisors  and  should  be 
shallow  in  the  intermediate  and  corner  pairs.  The  appearance 
of  the  upper  teeth  at  9  years 
of  age  is  shown  in  Fig.  33. 
At  10  years  of  age,  the  cups 
will  have  disappeared  from 
the  upper  intermediates, 
but  may  still  be  seen  in 
the  corner  teeth,  although 
shallow.  The  appearance 
at  10  years  of  age  is  shown 
in  Fig.  34.  When  a  horse  is  1 1  years  old  all  of  the  cups  will  have 
disappeared  from  the  upper  incisors.     However,  in  the  case  of 


Fig.  33 


§37 


HORSE  JUDGING 


47 


some  horses  that  have  dense  bone,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
cups  in  the  upper  comer  teeth  at  12  and  even  15  years  of  age. 
The  appearance  at  11  years  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  35. 


Fig.  34 


Fig.  35 


50.  After  the  eleventh  year  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
estimate  the  age  of  a  horse  by  its  teeth.  However,  the  shape 
and  the  angle  of  the  incisors  usually  indicate  whether  a  horse 
is  just  past  this  age  or  is  considerably  older.  In  Fig.  36  is 
illustrated  the  shape  of  a  permanent  incisor,  the  solid  lines 
indicating  the  position  of  the  wearing  surface  at  successive 
ages,  and  the  cross-sections  showing  how  the  surface  contour 


Cross  -  Sections 


Fig.  36 


changes  with  advancing  years.     Thus,   it  can  be  seen  that 
the  degree  of  triangularity  of  the  teeth  is  a  guide  to  the  age. 


48 


HORSE  JUDGING 


§37 


When  a  horse  is  young  the  upper  and  lower  incisors  meet 
nearly  vertical  with  each  other.  As  the  horse  advances  in 
years  the  angle  of  the  incisors  becomes  sharper,  until  in  a 
20-year-old  animal  they  meet  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 


(*) 


Fig.  37 


The  appearance  of  the  incisors  at  20  or  21  years  is  shown  in 
Fig.  37.  In  (a)  is  shown  a  view  of  the  lower  teeth  and  in 
(b)  a  profile  view  of  the  jaws. 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 

(PART  1) 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  horse  is  perhaps  the  most  highly  organized  of  all 
domestic  animals.  Every  horse  may  be  said  to  have  an 
individuality  of  its  own  and  to  require  somewhat  different 
management  from  every  other  horse.  Because  of  this  fact, 
the  successful  management  of  horses  is  dependent  not  only 
on  the  application  of  certain  fundamental  principles  of 
management  that  apply  to  all  horses,  but  also  on  a  careful 
study  of  the  needs  of  each  animal.  In  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding Section,  it  is  the  purpose  to  give  as  specific  directions 
as  possible  for  the  management  of  horses,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  emphasize  the  necessity  for  studying  the  require- 
ments of  each  animal. 

The  horse  differs  from  all  other  domestic  animals  in  the 
relative  capacities  of  the  different  organs  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  In  the  horse,  the  stomach  has  a  capacity  of  about 
3  gallons  and  the  intestines  about  ten  times  as  much.  Com- 
pare this  with  the  corresponding  organs  of  the  cow,  in  which 
the  stomach  has  a  capacity  of  55  to  60  gallons,  or  about 
two  and  a  half  times  more  than  the  intestines.  It  will  be 
apparent  from  this  that  horses  are  not  as  well  adapted  as 
cows  to  the  digesting  of  large  quantities  of  coarse  roughages, 
and  must  have  more  concentrated  feed,  particularly  when 
at  work.  All  the  energy  that  can  be  gotten  out  of  some 
feeds  is  required  to  digest  and  assimilate  them,  and  it  is 
needless  to  say  more  than  that  such  feeds  are  worthless  for 

COPYRIGHTED    BY   INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY.        ENTERED   AT   STATIONERS-    HALL.    LONDON 

§38 


2  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

horses  doing  hard  work.  The  harder  the  work  at  which 
a  horse  is  engaged,  the  more  concentrated  and  digestible 
the  ration  should  be. 

2.  The  important  points  to  be  considered  in  selecting 
horse  feeds  are  their  nutritive  value,  their  palatability,  their 
influence  on  health,  their  economy,  and  their  suitability  for 
the  age  of  the  horse  and  the  nature  of  its  work.  The  quantity 
of  feed  given  must  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  energy  required 
by  the  organs  of  the  body  in  performing  their  functional 
activities,  that  lost  through  excitement  or  irritation  resulting 
from  such  causes  as  a  harassing  driver,  an  unequal  mate, 
ill  health,  or  flies,  and  that  required  for  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed. In  addition  to  the  producing  of  energy  for  imme- 
diate needs,  the  feeding  of  a  horse  should  be  done  in  such 
a  way  that  it  will  be  conducive  to  the  future  health  and  vigor 
of  the  animal,  and,  if  it  is  young,  to  its  physical  development. 

3.  As  far  as  possible,  horses  should  be  stabled  where  they 
will  be  contented.  Some  horses  fret  if  they  are  removed 
from  the  company  of  other  horses;  on  the  other  hand,  some 
are  so  irritable  when  stabled  near  companions  that  they  lose 
considerable  energy  and  become  unduly  fatigued.  Also, 
the  personality  of  the  attendants  is  an  important  feature  of 
horse  management.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be  placed 
on  having  horses  cared  for  by  competent  persons.  Nothing 
worries  a  horse  more  than  ill  treatment;  in  fact,  abuse  may 
be  carried  to  the  point  that  the  behavior  and  disposition  of 
the  horse  will  be  affected  and  hence  its  market  value  greatly 
reduced.  To  develop  a  horse  to  its  utmost  efficiency,  it  must 
be  kindly  but  firmly  handled.  An  observation  of  these 
points  is  extremely  important  if  horses  are  to  be  managed 
successfully. 

4.  Although  the  type,  breed,  and  market  classifications 
of  horses  have  been  explained  in  preceding  Sections,  it  is 
necessary,  for  the  present  purpose,  to  make  a  broader 
grouping,  based  on  the  work  the  animals  do  or  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  used.     Horses  are  designated,  in  this  and 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  3 

the  succeeding  Section,  as  draft  horses,  driving  and  saddle 
horses,  breeding  horses,  and  horses  for  show  and  market. 
The  term  draft  horses  is  used  here  to  designate  such  horses 
as  are  used  to  move  heavy  wagons  or  trucks,  or  to  pull 
cultivating,  tillage,  and  harvesting  machinery  on  farms;  by 
the  term  driving  and  saddle  horses  is  meant  animals  of  the 
two  general  classes  of  light  horses  that  are  used,  respectively, 
for  drawing  light  vehicles  and  for  mounts;  by  breeding 
horses,  as  will  be  clear  from  the  term  itself,  is  meant  horses 
kept  for  breeding  purposes;  by  horses  for  show  and  market 
is  meant  horses  of  all  classes  that  are  intended  for  the  show 
ring  or  for  market.  It  may  be  seen,  however,  that  there  is 
likely  to  be  an  overlapping  of  these  groups.  For  instance, 
a  horse  may  be  kept  primarily  as  a  draft  horse  or  as  a  breeding 
horse,  and  also  be  occasionally  used  as  a  driving  horse  and 
as  a  show  animal.  In  all  such  cases  it  is  well  to  consider 
the  needs  of  the  animals  for  their  immediate  work. 


MANAGEMENT   OF   VARIOUS   CLASSES 
OF   HORSES 


DRAFT    HORSES 

5.  Feeding  of  Draft  Horses. — As  an  average  for  draft 
horses  at  moderate  work,  a  good  plan  to  follow  is  to  feed 
1  pound  of  grain  and  1J  pounds  of  hay  per  day  per  100  pounds 
of  live  weight  of  the  horse.  At  this  rate,  a  1,000-pound 
horse  would  receive  16  pounds  of  grain  and  20  pounds  of 
hay  per  day.  If  the  work  is  severe,  the  quantity  of  grain 
should  be  increased  to  1J  pounds  or  more  per  100  pounds  of 
live  weight  of  the  horse,  but  should  not  exceed  1J  pounds. 
When  a  heavy  grain  ration  is  fed  it  may  be  necessary  to  feed 
a  slightly  smaller  quantity  of  hay,  but  this  should  not  be  less 
than  1  pound  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight;  the  exact 
quantity  must  be  determined  largely  by  the  individuality 
and  appetite  of  each  horse.     When  a  heavy  grain   ration 

243—36 


4  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §  3S 

is  being  fed  it  should  be  slightly  reduced  as  soon  as  the 
work  slackens. 

The  grain  ration  should  be  divided  into  three  equal  feeds 
and  given  morning,  noon,  and  night.  The  greater  part  of 
the  hay  should  be  fed  to  the  horses  in  the  evening,  as  they 
will  then  have  all  night  in  which  to  consume  and  digest  it ; 
about  one-quarter  should  be  fed  in  the  morning  and  one- 
sixth  or  less  at  noon,  the  quantity  for  each  feed  depending 
on  the  time  allowed  for  the  horses  to  eat. 

6.  In  order  to  prevent  azoturia,  a  disease  of  horses  result- 
ing from  heavy  feeding  during  periods  of  idleness,  the  grain 
ration  should  be  reduced  about  one-half  on  days  when  the 
horses  are  idle.  If  the  period  of  idleness  continues  but 
1  or  2  days,  the  reduced  ration  of  grain  should  be  fed  until 
work  is  resumed;  if  it  continues  for  several  days,  the  reduced 
ration  should  be  fed  for  4  days,  when,  if  it  is  desired  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  animals,  the  quantity  can  be 
gradually  increased  until  the  normal  ration  is  fed.  This 
method  of  feeding  will  give  time  for  the  systems  of  the  horses 
to  become  adjusted  to  the  conditions  caused  by  idleness. 
A  better  plan  would  be  to  give  the  horses  some  exercise  each 
day  so  that  the  quantity  of  grain  need  be  reduced  but  little; 
it  is  advisable  to  reduce  the  quantity  somewhat  unless  the 
horses  are  in  a  thin  condition  and  it  is  desired  to  build  them 
up,  as  horses  that  are  merely  exercised  do  not  expend  nearly 
the  amount  of  energy  that  is  required  when  they  are  at  work. 
When  horses  remain  in  the  barn  on  Sundays  without  exercise, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  increase  the  quantity  of  hay  and  reduce 
the  quantity  of  grain  one-fourth. 

7.  In  selecting  the  kind  of  grain  for  the  ration  of  a  draft 
horse,  the  feeder  should  be  guided  by  the  kind  of  hay  used 
and  the  cheapness  of  the  ration;  a  larger  quantity  of  corn 
can  be  economically  and  satisfactorily  used  in  a  ration  with 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  than  with  prairie  or  timothy  hay.  Also, 
the  ration  should  contain  enough  digestible  protein  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  horse.  A  ration  consisting  of  h  part 
of  corn,  J  part  of  oats,  and  \  part  of  bran,  by  weight,  and 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  5 

a  mixture  of  timothy  and  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  or  of  prairie 
hay  and  alfalfa  or  clover,  will  give  satisfactory  results.  For 
a  1,000-pound  horse  at  moderate  work,  a  ration  of  this 
proportion  would  be  as  follows: 

Pounds 

Corn 8 

Oats 5J 

Bran 2$ 

Timothy  or  prairie  hay 10 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay 10 

When  prairie,  timothy,  or  some  other  hay  low  in  protein 
is  fed,  it  may  be  found  economical  to  add  to  the  ration  some 
cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal  in  order  to  increase  the 
content  of  digestible  protein.  A  saving  of  from  8  to  15  per 
cent,  can  be  made  by  grinding  or  crushing  the  grain  and 
feeding  it  in  some  way  to  insure  thorough  mastication;  this 
can  be  accomplished  by  mixing  the  grain  with  from  1  to 
2  pounds  of  chopped  hay  and  dampening  the  mass  to  allay 
the  dust.  Clover  and  alfalfa  hay  are  preferable  to  timothy 
hay  for  chopping,  as  the  latter  has  hard,  sharp  ends  that  are 
objectionable.  Bran  is  a  good  substitute  and  also  a  good 
supplement  for  cracked  corn.  Ear  corn  is  preferable  to 
shelled  corn  for  horses,  because  it  insures  a  more  thorough 
mastication. 

8.  Many  horse  feeders  make  the  mistake  of  feeding  too 
much  hay.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  keep  the  mangers  filled 
and  allow  hard-worked  horses  to  gorge  themselves  just  before 
going  to  work.  As  has  already  been  stated,  the  stomach  of 
the  horse  is  a  comparatively  small  organ  and  should  not  be 
burdened  with  a  lot  of  coarse  feed  that  is  hard  to  digest  and 
has  little  nutritive  value.  Hay  contains  a  large  quantity  of 
crude  fiber,  which  requires  much  more  energy  and  time  for 
its  digestion  than  grain,  consequently  only  a  small  quantity 
of  hay  should  be  given  when  the  time  for  consuming  the 
feed  is  short.  The  cause  of  bad  wind  and  heaves  is  often 
ascribed  solely  to  the  feeding  of  dusty  hay,  when,  in  reality, 
the   trouble   is   frequently   due   to  a   digestive   derangement 


6  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §  38 

caused  by  feeding  too  much  coarse  feed  and  immediately 
putting  horses  with  full  stomachs  at  hard  work. 

9.  The  winter  rations  for  horses  that  are  at  work  need 
not  differ  greatly  from  those  that  are  fed  during  the  summer. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  work  during  the  winter  is  not  so 
heavy  and  continuous  as  during  the  summer,  consequently 
the  horses  do  not  need  so  much  feed,  and  often  they  can  be 
fed  on  fodders  that  are  less  expensive  than  the  roughage 
required  in  summer.  A  good  quality  of  corn  stover  may 
be  used  in  place  of  hay,  or  good  oat  straw  may  be  used  as 
a  part  of  the  ration.  Corn  stover  that  has  been  properly 
cared  for  makes  a  good  feed  if  fed  in  the  fall  or  early  winter; 
if  shredded,  it  is  more  convenient  to  handle  in  feeding  and 
makes  less  litter  about  the  barn.  Corn-stalk  tops,  or  the 
part  of  the  stalks  above  the  ears,  make  a  roughage  that  is 
almost  equal  to  timothy  hay  in  feeding  value. 

Draft  horses  that  are  idle  during  the  winter  may  be  given 
the  run  of  a  stalk  field  or  a  pasture  that  has  been  reserved  for 
winter  use.  They  should  have  free  access  to  water  at  all 
times,  and  if  they  can  have  a  straw  stack  about  which  to 
lie  and  to  feed  on  they  will  do  well  in  mild  weather.  If  the 
feed  supply  gets  scant  it  should  be  supplemented  with  some 
grain  or  other  forage.  As  a  rule,  the  roughages  are  cheaper 
than  grains,  and  horses  that  are  not  worked  can  be  main- 
tained on  them  if  the}-  have  all  they  will  eat.  A  month 
before  the  horses  are  expected  to  go  to  work  in  the  spring 
some  grain  should  be  fed  to  them,  as  horses  that  have  not 
been  having  grain  are  soft  and  are  not  able  to  do  as  hard 
work  as  those  that  have. 

10.  Watering  of  Draft  Horses. — It  has  been  proved  by 
experiments  that  the  drinking  of  copious  quantities  of  water 
increases  the  assimilation  of  food;  therefore,  draft  horses 
should  have  free  access  to  salt  and  be  watered  frequently. 
During  hot  weather,  if  the  horses  are  at  work,  water  should 
be  given  before  and  after  each  feed,  about  the  middle  of  the 
forenoon,  and  again  about  the  middle  of  the  afternoon; 
when  this  is  done  there  is  but  little  danger  of  them  drinking 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  7 

too  much  when  hot.  If  the  work  is  such  that  water  is  not 
available  for  watering  the  horses  in  the  middle  of  the  fore- 
noon and  the  afternoon,  it  is  advisable,  where  possible,  to 
fill  a  milk  can  or  a  barrel  with  water  and  take  it  to  the  place 
of  the  work.  This  applies  particularly  to  work  on  the  farm. 
In  the  case  of  road  work,  it  is  not  always  convenient  to  carry 
a  supply  of  water,  although  in  certain  kinds  of  road  work 
it  may  be  possible  to  have  the  supply  of  water  at  some  point 
where  it  may  be  had  in  passing  back  and  forth. 

11.  Care  of  Draft  Horses. — Draft  horses  are  most  efficient 
if  allowed  to  do  their  work  at  a  walk.  Crowding  them  to 
work  faster  than  their  natural  gait  is  false  economy,  because 
it  usually  causes  fretting  and  excessive  perspiration,  which 
are  debilitating  and  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 
Each  horse  has  more  or  less  of  an  individual  gait,  and  in 
making  up  a  team  this  point  should  be  considered  and  an 
attempt  made  to  place  together  animals  that  are  as  evenly 
matched  in  gait  as  possible.  It  is  very  annoying  to  a  rapid- 
gaited  horse  to  be  compelled  to  work  with  one  that  is  slow 
gaited,  and  the  chances  are  that  the  former  will  pull  more 
than  its  share  of  the  load. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  clip  draft  horses  as  soon  as  the  weather 
becomes  warm  in  spring.  In  the  case  of  farm  draft  horses, 
the  clipping  should  be  done  before  they  are  put  at  hard  work. 
Removing  the  hair  lessens  perspiration  and  the  horses  dry 
quickly;  colds  can  be  avoided  if  blankets  are  used  as  the 
weather  may  require.  Clipping  also  makes  possible  and 
probable  a  more  thorough  grooming,  which  adds  to  the 
health  of  horses.  Contrary  to  common  belief,  if  draft  horses 
are  worked  occasionally  during  the  winter  they  will  not  be 
able  to  stand  cold  as  well  as  if  not  worked.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  work  is  practically  certain  to  cause  more  or  less 
sweating  and  this,  in  turn,  will  make  grooming  necessary. 
Horses  that  do  not  sweat  and  are  not  groomed  have  a  thin 
covering  of  dandruff  over  the  body  that  protects  it  from 
cold.  Grooming  removes  the  dandruff  from  the  hair  and  the 
surface  of  the  cuticle  and  also  stimulates  a  circulation  of 


8  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

blood  near  the  surface  of  the  cuticle;  this  stimulation  of 
circulation  retards  the  growth  of  cuticle  and  hair.  Horses 
that  are  regularly  groomed  are  shorter  haired  than  those  that 
are  not;  on  the  other  hand,  anything  that  produces  an 
anaemic  condition  stimulates  the  growth  of  cuticle  and  sub- 
joining parts.  This,  of  course,  applies  to  other  classes  of 
horses  as  well  as  to  draft  horses. 

It  is  important  to  watch  carefully  the  shoulders  of  draft 
horses.  A  collar  that  fits  badly  may  in  a  few  days  cause 
the  shoulders  of  a  horse  to  become  so  sore  that  it  will  be 
impossible  to  work  the  animal  for  several  days.  In  the  case 
of  farm  draft  horses,  particularly,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
extreme  care  in  this  respect.  As  a  rule,  farm  draft  horses 
are  more  or  less  idle  during  winter,  and,  as  a  result,  their 
shoulders  become  well  filled  out  with  flesh.  After  a  few 
days  of  hard  work,  the  shoulders  will  perhaps  have  lost  some 
of  their  covering,  and  consequently  the  collars  will  be  too 
large.  Many  farm  horses  are  incapacitated  for  heavy  spring 
work  simply  because  their  attendants  fail  to  keep  the  collars 
properly  adjusted  during  the  first  few  weeks.  After  the 
shoulders  have  become  toughened  to  the  work,  there  is  not 
so  much  danger  of  injury,  but  even  then  they  should  be 
examined  daily  as  long  as  the  horses  are  worked. 

When  draft  horses  are  used  for  teaming  on  hard  roads 
or  during  icy  times  they  should  be  kept  shod.  However, 
for  work  on  soft  earth,  such  as  work  on  the  farm,  their  feet 
will  last  better  without  shoes.  In  case  it  is  desired  to  use 
farm  draft  horses  for  road  work,  they  can  be  shod  and  the 
shoes  removed  when  the  work  is  finished. 


DRIVING    AND    SADDLE    HORSES 

12.  Feeding  of  Driving  and  Saddle  Horses. — The  feeding 
of  driving  and  saddle  horses  is  not  greatly  different  from  the 
feeding  of  draft  horses,  except  that  the  former  should  be 
given  a  smaller  quantity  of  hay  and  perhaps  a  little  more 
grain  than  the  latter.  An  ample  ration  for  a  driving  or  a 
saddle  horse  at  severe  work  is   1   pound  of  good  hay  and 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  9 

1$  pounds  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight  of  the 
animal.  At  this  rate  a  1,200-pound  horse  would  receive 
12  pounds  of  hay  and  16  pounds  of  grain  per  day.  Many 
driving  and  saddle  horses,  even  though  at  hard  work,  can 
be  maintained  in  good  condition  on  less  than  the  ration  just 
given.  Most  of  the  hay  should  be  fed  at  night  and  but  little 
given  in  the  morning  before  the  horse  is  put  at  work.  The 
grain  should  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts  and  given 
morning,  noon,  and  night. 

In  feeding  driving  and  saddle  horses  when  they  are  doing 
severe  labor,  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  give  feeds  that 
produce  a  laxative  condition.  A  large  quantity  of  crude 
fiber  is  found  in  oats;  hence  this  grain  is  one  of  the  best  for 
horses  at  hard  road  work.  Corn  is  not  as  good  as  oats  for 
the  feeding  of  light  horses  at  hard  work,  because  it  contains 
slightly  less  digestible  protein,  much  less  crude  fiber,  and 
much  more  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  However,  if  corn  is 
crushed  and  fed  with  chopped  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  and  bran, 
it  can  be  satisfactorily  substituted  for  oats,  and,  when  fed 
in  this  manner,  lessens  the  danger  of  impaction  and  other 
digestive  troubles.  Because  of  their  laxative  properties, 
clover  and  alfalfa  hay  2rnnot  be  used  as  extensively  for  the 
feeding  of  driving  and  saddle  horses  as  for  draft  horses; 
when  these  hays  are  fed  they  should  be  given  with  timothy 
or  prairie  hay. 

For  extremely  severe  work,  such  as  racing,  less  hay  should 
be  given  than  for  common  road  work;  most  of  the  nutrients 
should  be  supplied  by  grain,  oats  being  best.  About  £  pound 
of  hay  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight  of  the  animal  should  be 
given,  most  of  it  being  fed  at  the  evening  feed. 

During  idleness,  light  horses  should  not  be  made  to  subsist 
wholly  on  roughages,  as  such  feeds  tend  to  make  the  animals 
somewhat  poddy,  or  large  in  the  abdomen.  As  a  part  of  the 
market  value  of  driving  and  saddle  horses  is  in  their  appear- 
ance, such  a  condition  is  very  objectionable. 

13.  Watering  of  Driving  and  Saddle  Horses. — Driving  and 
saddle  horses,  like  draft  horses,  should  be  watered  at  least 


10  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §  3S 

before  and  after  each  meal.  When  possible,  they  should  be 
watered  even  more  frequently  than  this,  particularly  when 
they  are  at  hard  work  during  hot  weather.  It  should  be  the 
practice  to  water  them  often  enough  that  they  will  not  drink 
too  much  at  one  time. 

14.  Care  of  Driving  and  Saddle  Horses. — As  a  rule,  driving 
and  saddle  horses  do  not  work  as  many  hours  at  one  time  as 
draft  horses,  but  their  work  is  more  severe  while  they  are  at  it. 
A  horse  of  this  class,  particularly,  should  not  be  put  at  hard 
work  with  a  full  stomach,  for  the  stomach  will  press  against 
the  diaphragm  and  retard  free,  easy  breathing.  The  diges- 
tion, also,  is  retarded,  because  the  flow- of  blood  to  the 
stomach  and  adjacent  parts  is  diverted  to  other  regions  of 
the  body. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  appearance  is  extremely  important 
in  driving  and  saddle  horses,  care  should  be  exercised  to 
keep  them  properly  groomed.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  suit- 
able bedding  should  be  kept  in  the  stalls  to  prevent  the 
horses  from  becoming  stained  by  the  manure.  It  is  impor- 
tant, also,  that  they  be  stabled  where  it  will  be  impossible 
for  them  to  rub  out  their  manes  and  tails  and  to  become 
scratched  by  projections.  The  appearance  of  a  driving  or 
a  saddle  horse  is  dependent  to  a  large  degree  on  the  coat, 
which  should  be  kept  free  from  stains,  scratches,  etc.,  and 
maintained  in  a  glossy,  luxuriant  condition. 

As  the  work  of  driving  and  saddle  horses  is  largely  per- 
formed on  hard  roads  or  pavements,  it  is  necessary  to  pay 
particular  attention  to  their  feet.  The  work  of  shoeing  such 
horses  should  be  done  by  competent  horseshoers,  who  have 
good  judgment  as  to  the  kind  and  weight  of  shoes  to  use  for 
a  particular  animal.  This,  of  course,  is  extremely  important 
in  the  case  of  race  horses  or  those  used  for  fast  road  work. 
The  limbs  of  light  horses  should  be  watched  carefully  for 
sprains  or  bruises,  and  if  such  are  found  they  should  be 
treated.  Detailed  information  concerning  the  treatment  of 
such  injuries  is  given  in  a  subsequent  Section. 


38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  11 


BREEDING    HOUSES 


BROOD    MARES 

15.  Selecting  of  Mares  for  Breeding  Purposes. — As  a  rule, 
in  horse  breeding  the  general  appearance  and  pedigree  of  the 
stallion  are  given  much  prominence  and  in  the  brood  mare 
they  are  more  or  less  disregarded.  However,  so  far  as  is 
known,  the  mare  has  as  much  influence  on  the  colt  as  has 
the  stallion.  Occasionally,  a  fine  colt  may  be  obtained  from 
an  inferior  mare,  but  such  is  rarely  the  case,  and  a  horse 
breeder  should  not  risk  breeding  such  an  animal. 

A  brood  mare  should  be  of  good  size  for  the  breed  to  which 
she  belongs.  Her  conformation  should  be  rather  open,  that 
is,  not  too  compact;  the  eyes  should  be  prominent,  bright, 
and  well  set;  the  head,  fine  and  feminine  in  appearance; 
and  the  neck,  rather  thin  and  not  coarse.  The  shoulders 
should  slope  well  into  the  back,  and  the  withers  should  be 
high  rather  than  low.  The  back  should  be  rather  short, 
and  the  under  line  should  be  somewhat  longer  than  the  back. 
The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung  and  rather  open.  The  hind- 
quarters should  be  broad  and  deep,  and  the  pelvic  region 
broad  to  insure  ease  of  foaling. 

The  legs  and  feet,  especially,  of  the  brood  mare  should  be 
of  good  quality  and  conformation.  The  bones  of  the  limbs 
should  be  clean  and  free  from  coarseness,  so  that  the  legs 
appear  wide  and  flat.  The  tendons  should  be  prominent 
and  free  from  meatiness;  the  hair  should  be  fine,  silky,  and 
glossy.  Coarse,  kinky,  profuse  hair  that  tends  to  grow 
from  the  sides  as  well  as  the  back  of  the  legs,  below  the  hocks 
and  knees,  usually  indicates  coarseness,  spongy  bone,  and  a 
tendency  to  diseases  of  the  limbs.  The  feet  should  be  of 
medium  size,  well  shaped,  dark  colored,  tough,  elastic,  and 
fine  of  texture.  Mares  having  poor  hoofs — too  small,  too 
large,  too  soft  and  spongy,  too  weak,  brittle,  wide  and  low 
in  the  heels,  too  shallow  and  flat,  too  steep  and  contracted 
— are   not    desirable    for    breeding    purposes.     The    wearing 


12  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §  38 

qualities  of  a  horse  depend  largely  on  the  character  of  the 
legs  and  hoofs. 

The  action  of  a  brood  mare  should  be  good.  The  step 
should  be  regular,  firm,  free,  and  elastic.  A  fast  and  snappy- 
walk  is  essential  to  all  classes  of  horses,  whether  for  draft 
or  road  purposes.  The  legs  and  feet  should  move  free  of 
each  other  and  without  interfering.  In  the  case  of  driving 
horses,  good  action  at  the  trot  or  pace  is  essential;  the  action 
of  these  gaits  should  be  straight  and  not  marred  by  paddling 
or  sprawling. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  brood  mare  be  free  from 
all  forms  of  unsoundness  and  hereditary  or  other  disease  that 
may  be  communicable  to  the  offspring.  Many  breeders 
have  fallen  into  the  error  of  considering  any  broken-down, 
halt,  maimed,  blind,  or  otherwise  unsound  mare  to  be  fit  for 
breeding  purposes  even  when  she  is  no  longer  able  to  work. 
It  should  be  said  that  blemishes  that  are  the  result  of 
accident,  are  not  hereditary  or  transmissible  and  do  not 
render  an  animal  unfit  for  breeding.  The  greatest  possible 
care  must  be  exercised,  however,  in  deciding  whether  the 
blemish  is   the  result  of  accident  or  an  inherent  deficiency. 

Furthermore,  it  is  desirable  that  the  brood  mare  should 
have  a  good  disposition.  Infirmities  in  temper  or  disposition 
seem  to  be  readily  transmitted  to  offspring.  Pregnant  mares 
are  often  quarrelsome  and  many  distressing  accidents  occur 
when  mares  in  such  condition  have  mean  dispositions. 
Although  perfect  mares  can  rarely  if  ever  be  found,  and  few 
farmer  breeders  can  afford  to  reject  a  mare  for  small  and 
unimportant  defects,  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  to  each 
horse  breeder  and  a  boon  to  the  horse-breeding  industry  in 
general  if  all  actually  unsound  and  notably  unsuitable  mares 
were  rigorously  rejected  as  breeding  stock. 

16.  Productive  Period. — As  a  rule,  the  most  fertile 
period  in  the  life  of  a  mare  is  when  she  is  from  4  to  12  years 
old.  During  this  period  she  is  usually  a  more  reliable  breeder 
and  will  produce  better  colts  than  before  or  after.  Of  course, 
most  mares  will  become  pregnant  at  2  years  of  age  and  will 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  13 

continue  to  do  so  until  well  advanced  in  years,  but  with  a 
less  degree  of  certainty  than  during  the  period  just  given. 

The  question  of  the  age  at  which  it  is  safe  to  breed  young 
mares  is  one  regarding  which  there  is  considerable  difference 
of  opinion,  and  one  that  is  dependent  on  at  least  three  impor- 
tant factors:  the  breed,  the  individual  animal,  and  the  object 
sought  in  breeding.  Horses  of  the  draft  breeds  mature  much 
earlier  than  those  of  the  lighter  breeds,  so  that  a  draft  filly 
at  2  years  old  is  often  as  well  matured  as  a  light  mare  at 
3  years  of  age.  Also,  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the 
way  individual  mares  mature.  Usually  a  smoothly  turned  filly 
of  fine  structure  makes  her  growth  more  rapidly  and  hence 
matures  earlier  than  a  rougher,  coarser  filly.  Feed  and  care 
have  much  to  do  with  the  early  maturity  of  a  filly ;  one  that  is 
kept  growing  continuously  will  mature  earlier  than  one  that 
is  imperfectly  cared  for  and  that  has  a  setback  each  winter. 
If  the  object  sought  in  breeding  is  to  improve  the  strain  of 
horses,  the  filly  should  be  permitted  to  mature  more  fully 
than  when  the  purpose  is  simply  to  produce  as  many  animals 
as  possible  for  market.  Although  opinions  differ,  it  is  the 
belief  of  a  large  number  of  authorities  that  draft  fillies  should 
be  bred  at  2  years,  and  driving  and  saddle  fillies  at  3  years 
of  age.  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  breed  2-year-old 
draft  fillies  if  they  are  to  be  fitted  for  show  or  put  at  hard 
work  when  3  years  old.  If  not,  breeding  at  2  years  old  will 
develop  the  generative  organs  and  the  breeding  powers,  and 
hence  the  fillies  will  make  better  brood  mares  than  if  not  bred 
until  they  are  3  years  old.  Too  early  breeding  is  detrimental 
in  the  case  of  driving  or  saddle  horses,  because,  as  already 
explained,  such  animals  are  not  likely  to  be  as  well  developed 
as  draft  fillies  at  the  same  age,  and  the  carrying  of  a  foal  is 
pretty  sure  to  cause  the  form  to  become  poddy. 

The  practice  in  certain  draft-horse-producing  countries, 
Great  Britain  for  example,  is  to  breed  draft  fillies  the  spring 
they  are  2  years  old  and  not  put  them  at  any  work  whatever 
that  season.  After  weaning  their  foals,  they  are  taken  as 
3-year-olds  and  put  to  work,  and  not  bred  again  until  they 
are  4  years  old. 


14  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §  38 

At  about  12  years  old,  the  productive  powers  of  many 
mares  will  begin  to  wane,  although  a  large  number  of  mares 
are  reliable  breeders  to  an  age  of  15  years,  especially  if  they 
have  been  bred  continuously  from  their  maturity.  Above 
this  age,  it  is  rarely  profitable  to  keep  them  for  breeding. 
Usually  it  is  best  to  dispose  of  draft  brood  mares  at  10  or 
12  years  of  age  unless  they  are  exceptionally  good  breeders, 
in  which  case  they  should  be  kept  as  long  as  they  will  breed. 

17.  Season  of  the  Year  to  Breed  Mares. — The  natural 
time  for  colts  to  arrive  is  in  the  spring,  and  under  ordinary 
conditions,  particularly  on  breeding  farms,  this  is  customary. 
However,  it  is  often  the  case  that  a  mare  must  be  worked 
during  the  summer  in  addition  to  raising  a  colt.  This 
often  makes  it  desirable  to  breed  mares  so  as  to  have  the 
foals  arrive  in  the  fall.  For  example,  farmers  who  are  com- 
pelled to  work  their  draft  horses  during  summer  often  find 
it  more  desirable  to  have  the  mares  foal  in  the  fall  than  in 
the  spring,  because  of  the  slack  work  in  winter.  With  good 
stables,  an  abundance  of  feed,  and  the  necessary  help,  there 
is  no  reason  why  mares  should  not  be  bred  to  foal  in  the  fall 
if  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  them  do  so.  In  fact,  if  there 
is  no  chance  to  favor  a  mare  properly  after  a  foal  arrives  in 
the  spring,  it  is  best  to  have  the  foal  arrive  in  the  fall  so  that 
it  can  be  suckled  when  the  mare  is  idle.  During  winter, 
however,  both  mare  and  foal  will  require  more  attention  than 
if  the  mare  had  foaled  in  spring.  An  advantage  of  fall  foaling 
is  that  the  colts  can  be  given  a  good  start  before  they  are  set 
back  by  the  short  pastures  and  flies  of  midsummer.  Breeders 
*~f  race  and  show  horses  take  every  possible  advantage  of  the 
age  limits  of  racing  and  show  classes  and  therefore  favor 
early  spring  foaling.  There  are,  unquestionably,  certain  ben- 
efits, such  as  life  in  the  open  and  new  grass,  to  be  derived 
from  spring  foaling,  but  the  prejudice  against  fall  foaling 
is  not  altogether  warranted,  and  circumstances  may  be  such 
as  to  make  it  most  advantageous. 

18.  Period  of  Heat. — In  mares,  the  natural  period  of  heat 
recurs  about  every  21  days  and  lasts  from  3  to  7  days.     The 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  15 

first  heat  period  after  foaling  occurs  in  9  days,  or  thereabouts, 
and  if  the  mare  is  healthy  and  has  received  no  injuries  in 
giving  birth,  it  is  the  practice  to  breed  her  at  this  time;  some 
mares  will  accept  the  stallion  on  the  seventh  day  after  foaling. 
The  breeder  should  be  cautioned,  however,  not  to  breed  mares 
at  the  first  heat  period  after  foaling  if  they  are  not  in  breeding 
condition. 

When  a  mare  has  been  served  she  should,  as  a  test  of  suc- 
cessful impregnation,  be  returned  to  the  stallion  at  about 
the  time  the  next  heat  period  is  due.  If  the  first  service  has 
been  successful  the  mare  will  not  accept  the  stallion  for  a 
second  service.  Even  if  the  first  service  has  not  been  suc- 
cessful, most  mares  will  not  accept  the  stallion  for  a  second 
service  until  27  or  28  days  after  the  first  service,  but  as  a 
precaution  against  missing  a  heat  period,  the  mare  should 
be  returned  to  the  stallion  sooner  than  this.  The  exact  day 
after  the  service  that  mares  should  be  returned  is  a  much 
discussed  question.  Some  authorities  advise  returning  mares 
on  the  fourteenth  day  after  the  first  service;  others  believe 
that  it  should  be  done  on  the  eighteenth  day ;  still  others,  on 
the  twenty-first  day.  This  divergence  of  opinion  is  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  mares  differ  considerably  in  the  time  of 
the  recurrence  of  the  heat  period.  It  is  advisable  for  the 
breeder  to  study  the  individual  differences  among  his  mares 
and  be  governed,  to  a  large  degree,  by  his  observations. 

If  a  mare  accepts  the  stallion  for  a  second  service  she  should 
be  returned  as  explained  for  the  first  service.  If  she  does 
not  accept  the  stallion  when  first  returned  after  the  first  or 
the  second  service,  she  should  be  taken  to  the  stallion  once 
each  week  thereafter  for  about  a  month  as  a  further  test  of 
successful  impregnation.  Conception  usually  causes  a  cessa- 
tion'of  the  heat  period  and  terminates  the  discharge  of  ova 
from  the  ovaries,  but  there  are  rare  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
Cases  are  on  record  where  mares  have  produced  a  horse  colt 
and  a  mule  colt  at  one  birth ;  this,  in  all  probability,  was  due 
to  the  two  ova  being  fertilized  at  different  heat  periods,  the 
first  being  fertilized  by  a  stallion  and  the  second  by  a  jack 
at  a  later  heat  period  or  vice  versa. 


16  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

Some  mares  are  shy  about  accepting  a  stallion.  If  a  mare 
is  unwilling  and  it  is  desired  to  breed  her,  artificial  impreg- 
nation should  be  practiced,  as  explained  later.  There  are 
other  mares,  and  they  are  numerous,  that  will  freely  accept 
service  when  they  are  in  foal,  in  some  cases  almost  up  to  the 
time  of  foaling. 

19.  Feeding  of  Brood  Mares  Previous  to  Breeding  Season. 
The  chief  point  to  consider  in  the  feeding  of  brood  mares 
previous  to  the  breeding  season  is  to  keep  them  in  good 
condition  without  permitting  them  to  become  too  fat.  In 
the  case  of  mares  that  are  given  plenty  of  work,  there  is 
little  danger  of  overfatness,  but  many  mares  have  a  tendency 
to  become  excessively  fat  when  idle.  Mares  that  are  too 
fat  are  usually  more  difficult  to  get  in  foal  than  those  in 
moderate  flesh  and  the}*  are  also  more  subject  to  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  generative  organs  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  cysts  and  tumors. 

20.  Feeding  of  Brood  Mares  During  Breeding  Season. 
The  feeding  of  brood  mares  during  the  breeding  season  need 
not  differ  from  that  at  any  other  season  of  the  year.  It  is 
erroneously  claimed  by  some  horse  breeders  that  mares 
running  on  clover  pasture  are  more  difficult  to  get  in  foal 
than  those  that  are  fed  on  grain.  It  is  possible  that  a  very 
loose  condition  of  the  bowels  may  have  some  influence  on 
the  breeding  condition,  but  as  green  forage  is  the  natural 
food  of  horses,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  experienced  in 
this  respect  when  mares  are  allowed  to  run  on  clover  pasture. 
In  fact,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  bowels  of  brood  mares 
somewhat  loose  at  breeding  time  in  order  to  lessen  the 
possibility  of  a  general  feverish  condition. 

21.  Breeding  Condition  of  Mares. — If  a  mare  has  been 
well  fed  and  cared  for  during  the  winter  and  early  spring, 
she  should  be  in  good  condition  for  breeding,  provided  she 
has  no  organic  disorders.  Mares  are  more  likely  to  breed 
in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall  and  winter,  because  they  are 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  17 

usually  in  better  condition.  If  a  mare  is  to  be  bred  in  the 
fall,  after  being  worked  hard  all  summer,  she  should  be  built 
up  by  increasing  her  ration,  especially  the  grain,  and  by 
giving  her  regular  and  moderate  exercise.  Her  bowels 
should  be  kept  free  from  constipation  by  succulent  feeds. 
Barrenness  in  mares  is  often  due  to  poor  feeding  and  hard 
work,  the  system  being  weakened  by  a  lack  of  sufficient 
nutrition. 

Mares  should  not  be  bred  when  in  an  excited  or  a  heated 
condition,  but  should  be  allowed  to  rest  and  become  cool. 
Before  being  served,  a  mare  should  always  be  examined  to 
ascertain  whether  her  condition  is  satisfactory.  Her  tem- 
perature should  be  taken,  both  in  the  rectum  and  in  the  neck 
of  the  uterus;  the  temperature  of  both  places  should  be 
practically  the  same  under  normal  conditions,  that  is,  99.6°  F. 
If  the  temperature  of  the  uterus  neck  is  found  to  be  2\  degrees 
higher  than  that  of  the  rectum,  or  above  102  degrees,  it  is 
useless  to  breed  the  mare,  as  some  condition  exists  that 
has  caused  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  and  spermatozoa 
could  not  live  if  they  were  introduced.  A  self-registering 
clinical  thermometer  should  be  used  for  taking  the  temper- 
ature. Most  clinical  thermometers  are  claimed  to  register  in 
30  seconds,  but  in  actual  practice  it  is  a  good  plan  to  leave 
them  inserted  for  2  or  3  minutes  to  insure  a  correct  reading. 
Note  should  be  taken  of  the  condition  of  the  vulva  and  of  the 
eyelids  and  nostrils;  if  these  are  congested,  it  indicates  the 
presence  of  inflammation  elsewhere. 

The  attendant  should  always  be  on  the  lookout  for  any 
abnormal  discharge  and  for  an  acid  or  an  alkaline  condition 
of  the  generative  organs.  If  such  are  found,  the  mare  should 
be  treated  by  a  competent  veterinarian  before  she  is  bred. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  matter  of  cleanliness 
when  making  internal  examinations  or  taking  temperatures 
to  reduce  the  danger  of  an  infectious  disease  being  introduced 
into  a  healthy  mare.  The  person  and  clothing  of  the  operator 
should  be  clean  and  the  hand  and  arm  carefully  washed  in 
some  such  antiseptic  as  a  dilute  solution  of  bichloride  of 
mercury  or  of  carbolic  acid. 


18  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

22.  Serving  of  Mares. — Before  permitting  a  stallion  to 
attempt  to  serve  a  mare,  it  must  be  first  ascertained  whether 
she  is  in  heat  and  will  accept  him.  This  is  determined  by 
leading  the  mare  up  to  one  side  of  a  teasing  pole,  such  as 
described  in  Horse  Barns  and  Paddocks,  and  then  leading  the 
stallion  up  to  the  opposite  side  and  allowing  him  to  bite 
and  otherwise  play  with  her;  this  is  known  as  teasing.  If 
the  mare  is  in  heat  she  will  submit  to  the  teasing,  but  if  not 
in  heat  she  will  squeal  and  attempt  to  kick  the  stallion.  It 
is  advisable  to  permit  the  stallion  to  tease  her  for  several 
minutes,  because  some  mares,  particularly  fillies,  are  shy 
about  accepting  a  stallion  and  will  not  at  first  exhibit 
signs  of  heat.  In  addition,  if  a  mare  is  just  going  out  of 
heat,  she  can  sometimes  be  induced  to  accept  the  stallion 
by  prolonged  teasing.  If  the  mare  exhibits  signs  of  heat 
she  should  be  examined,  as  already  explained,  and  if  found 
to  be  in  breeding  condition  and  entirely  cool  and  unexcited, 
she  is  ready  for  the  service.  If  she  does  not  exhibit  signs  of 
heat  the  owner  of  the  mare  and  the  stud  groom  should  use 
their  judgment  about  attempting  to  breed  her.  As  a  rule, 
if  mares  do  not  show  signs  of  heat  they  should  not  be  served, 
but  some  mares  are  so  shy  that  they  will  not  exhibit  signs 
of  heat  no  matter  how  long  they  are  teased. 

If  the  mare  is  willing  and  everything  is  ready  for  the 
service,  she  should  be  led  into  a  breeding  chute,  such  as 
that  illustrated  in  Horse  Barns  and  Paddocks,  and  the  stallion 
permitted  to  serve  her.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  to  breed 
a  mare  without  the  use  of  a  breeding  chute,  but  the  service 
will  be  much  more  satisfactory  if  one  is  used.  The  details 
of  a  service  are  explained  later  in  connection  with  the  handling 
of  stallions. 

23.  Care  of  Mares  Immediately  After  Service. — After 
mares  have  been  served  they  should  not  be  fatigued  by  a 
long  drive.  Experienced  horse  breeders  claim  that  if  mares 
are  allowed  to  remain  quiet  for  24  hours  after  being  served, 
instead  of  being  put  to  work  immediately,  a  larger  percentage 
will  be  got  in  foal.     Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  permit 


N<  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  1!) 

the  mare's  bowels  to  become  too  loose,  although  a  mildly 
laxative  condition  is  desirable. 

24.  Artificial  Impregnation. — A  method  of  impregnating 
mares  artificially,  known  as  artificial  impregnation,  is  now 
somewhat  extensively  practiced.  As  commonly  practiced,  it 
consists  in  collecting  a  quantity  of  semen  from  a  mare  that 
has  been  served  in  the  natural  way  and  introducing  it  into 
the  uterus  of  one  or  more  other  mares;  it  is  also  frequently 
practiced  to  further  the  passage  of  semen  from  the  vagina 
into  the  uterus  in  the  case  of  a  mare  just  bred,  in  order  to 
make  conception  more  probable.  The  act  of  introducing 
the  semen  is  spoken  of  as  artificial  insemination.  When  a 
good,  natural  service  is  made  and  the  discharge  from  the 
stallion  is  normal,  it  is  possible  to  breed  as  many  as  a  dozen 
or  more  mares  from  the  one  service.  During  the  busiest 
part  of  the  breeding  season,  when  the  stallion  is  severely 
taxed,  it  is  a  matter  of  economy  to  practice  artificial  impreg- 
nation. Also,  in  the  case  of  mares  in  which  the  neck  of  the 
uterus  is  greatly  contracted  it  is  often  necessary  to  resort  to 
artificial   impregnation  if  they   arc  ever  to  be   got  in  foal. 

25.  To  extract  the  semen  from  a  mare,  an  instrument 
known  as  a  semen  extractor  is  used.  Some  forms  of  these 
extractors  will  remove  semen  from  the  vagina  only,  but, 
since  in  many  cases  the  semen  is  deposited  directly  into  the 
uterus,  it  is  desirable  to  have  an  extractor  that  will  work 
equally  well  in  removing  semen  from  this  latter  organ. 
A  form  of  extractor  that  meets  these  requirements  and  that 
can  also  be  used,  if  desired,  to  inject  the  seminal  fluid  from  the 
vagina  of  a  mare  just  bred  into  the  uterus  or  to  remove  it 
and  inject  it  into  the  uterus  of  a  different  mare  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1  (a).  This  extractor  has  a  flexible  metal  tube  that 
can  be  readily  bent.  When  the  semen  is  taken  from  the 
uterus,  the  tube  should  be  bent  downwards  after  inserting 
it  through  the  neck  of  the  uterus,  care  being  exercised  to  hold 
the  finger  near  the  end  of  the  tube  when  the  piston  is  being 
withdrawn,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1  (/?),  to  prevent  the  membranes 
of  the  uterus  from  being  sucked  in.     The  extractor  should 

■2U—67 


20 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


3S 


be  warmed  to  body  temperature  in  sterilized  water  before 
it  is  used.  After  it  is  filled,  the  tube  should  be  straightened 
before  it  is  withdrawn  from  the  uterus. 


26.  The  semen  that  is  withdrawn  is  deposited  in  the 
uterus  of  a  mare  by  one  of  two  methods.  Either  an  instru- 
ment known  as  an  impregnator  is  used,  or  the  semen  is 
placed  in  an  ordinary  gelatine  capsule  of  a  capacity  of  about 
1  ounce  and  this  is  then  placed  in  the  uterus  of  the  mare. 
One  form  of  impregnator  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2  (a)  and 
another  form  in  (b).     By  the  instrument  shown  in   (a),  the 


semen  is  drawn  from  the  semen  extractor  by  means  of 
the  piston  in  the  impregnator  and  is  ejected  by  a  reverse 
action  of  the  piston.     The  impregnator  shown  in  (b)  is  filled 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  21 

from  the  extractor  by  compressing  and  releasing  the  bulb. 
The  combined  semen  extractor  and  impregnator  shown  in1 
Fig.  1  (a)  also  is  commonly  used.  When  capsules  are  used, 
they  should  be  filled  in  a  subdued  light  and  the  seminal  fluid 
should  be  maintained  at  body  temperature,  which  can  be 
done  by  keeping  the  extractor  partly  submerged  in  warm 
water.  Both  sudden  chilling  and  sunlight  are  destructive  to 
spermatozoa.  As  each  capsule  is  filled  it  should  be  immedi- 
ately inserted  into  the  uterus  of  the  mare  to  be  bred.  The 
advantage  of  capsules  over  an  impregnator  is  that  more 
mares  can  be  bred  from  one  service,  because  the  attendant  is 
able  to  divide  the  fluid  and  know  that  a  certain  quantity  has 
been  deposited  in  the  uterus. 

27.  Precautions  should  be  taken  in  artificial  insemination 
to  guard  against  infection;  the  instruments  used  should  be 
sterilized  in  the  same  way  as  surgical  instruments  and  the 
operator  should  guard  against  the  introduction  of  disease 
from  an  unhealthy  mare.  The  chances  of  this  happening  are 
much  less,  if  the  operator  is  careful  and  understands  his  busi- 
ness, than  when  a  stallion  is  allowed  to  cover  a  mare  without 
an  examination  being  made  of  her  physical  condition. 

The  same  method  should  be  used  in  ascertaining  whether 
a  mare  is  pregnant  when  she  has  been  bred  artificially  as 
when  bred  by  a  natural  service.  If,  however,  she  is  arti- 
ficially bred  when  not  in  heat,  she  should  not  be  returned  to 
the  stallion  for  teasing  before  about  30  days,  after  which  she 
should  be  returned  once  each  week  thereafter  until  it  is 
determined  that  she  is  pregnant.  If  a  mare  passes  over  two 
heat  periods  after  being  bred  without  exhibiting  signs  of 
heat,  it  is  generally  considered  probable  that  she  is  pregnant. 
Occasionally,  mares  are  found,  especially  among  those 
suckling  colts,  that  do  not  have  a  regular  recurrence  of  the 
heat  period,  and  in  this  case  it  sometimes  happens  that  the 
symptoms  of  pregnancy  are  deceptive.  If  a  mare  was  in 
heat  when  artificially  inseminated,  she  should  be  returned 
to  the  stallion  for  teasing  in  about  21  days  after  being  bred, 
and  each  seventh  day  thereafter  for  7  or  8  weeks.     If,  during 


22  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

this  time,  she  does  not  come  into  heat,  it  is  almost  safe  to 
conclude  that  she  is  pregnant. 

28.  Signs  of  Pregnancy. — The  first  signs  of  pregnancy  in 
mares  are  the  absence  of  the  usual  heat  period,  more  quiet- 
ness, a  tendency  to  take  on  fat,  crossness  toward  other  horses, 
fullness  of  the  flank,  and  contraction  of  the  vulva.  In 
advanced  stages,  the  belly  becomes  more  pendulous,  the 
udder  fills,  and  a  moving,  jerking,  and  kicking  of  the  fetus 
is  often  noticed,  especially  on  the  right  side  just  after  the 
mare  has  taken  a  drink  of  cold  water.  If  there  is  any  doubt 
whether  or  not  the  mare  is  pregnant,  an  examination  may 
be  made  through  the  rectum  by  a  veterinarian. 

29.  Period  of  Gestation. — The  period  of  gestation  in 
mares  is  popularly  considered  to  be  11  months;  a  period  of 
33G  days  is,  perhaps,  more  accurate,  but  it  may  vary  greatly 
either  way.  Table  I  shows  the  date  after  breeding  at  which 
a  mare  is  due  to  foal,  assuming  that  the  period  of  gestation 
is  336  days.  This  table  will  be  found  helpful  in  ascertaining 
the  approximate  date  when  foals  may  be  expected. 

30.  Feeding  of  Pregnant  Mares. — During  the  first  6  months 
of  the  period  of  gestation,  the  feeding  of  a  pregnant  mare  need 
be  little  different  than  that  of  a  mare  not  pregnant,  as  there 
is  comparatively  little  growth  of  the  fetus.  At  about  the 
beginning  of  the  seventh  month,  a  slight  increase  should 
be  made  in  the  protein  content  of  the  ration,  and  further 
increases  should  be  made  occasionally  up  to  a  short  time 
before  the  mare  foals.  The  most  economical  feeds  to  use  in 
making  this  increase  in  protein  are  such  roughages  as  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay.  If  these  are  not  available,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  feed  concentrates  such  as  linseed  meal,  cot- 
tonseed meal,  and  wheat  bran.  Feeds  such  as  these  are  rich 
in  protein  and  ash,  and  are  much  better  for  a  mare  that 
is  well  advanced  in  pregnancy  than  a  starchy  feed  such  as 
corn.  A  good  grain  ration  for  a  mare  that  is  just  past  the 
seventh  month  of  pregnancy  and  is  being  worked  is  as  follows: 
Ground  oats,  by  weight,  4  parts;  corn,  2  parts;  wheat  bran, 


§  38 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


23 


TABLE    I 

GESTATION     TABLE     FOR    MARES 


1 
Date 
Bred 

1 
Due  to 
Foal 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Jan.  I 

Dec.  2 

Feb.  1 

Jan.  2 

March  1 

Jan.  30 

2 

3 

3 
4 

2 
3 

3 
4 

2 
3 

31 
Feb.  1 

4 

5 

4 

5 

4 

2 

5 

6 

5 

6 

5 

3 

6 

7 

6 

7 

6 

4 

7 
8 

8 
9 

7 
8 

8 
9 

7 
8 

5 
6 

9 

10 

9 

10 

9 

7 

IO 

1 1 

10 

1 1 

10 

8 

i  i 

12 

1 1 

12 

1  1 

9 

12 

13 

12 

13 

12 

10 

*3 

14 

13 

M 

13 

1 1 

14 

15 

14 

!5 

14 

12 

15 

16 

15 

16 

15 

13 

16 

17 

16 

17 

16 

14 

17 

18 

17 

18 

l7 

15 

18 

19 

18 

19 

18 

16 

19 

20 

19 

20 

19 

17 

20 

21 

20 

2 1 

20 

18 

21 

22 

21 

22 

21 

19 

22 

23 

22 

23 

22 

20 

23 

24 

23 

24 

23 

21 

24 

25 

24 

25 

24 

22 

25 

26 

25 

26 

25 

23 

26 

27 

26 

27 

26 

24 

27 

28 

27 

28 

27 

25 

28 

29 

28 

29 

28 

26 

29 

3° 

29 

27 

30 
31 

31 
Jan.  1 

l 

3° 

31 

1 

28 
March  1 

24 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


38 


TABLE    I— (Continued) 


Date 
Bred 

Due  to  1 
Foal 

Date 
Bred 

II 
Due  to  1 
Foal 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Apr.  i 

Mar.  2 

May  1 

Apr.  1 

Tune  1 

May  2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 
6 

6 
7 

5 
6 

5 
6 

5 
6 

6 

7 

7 
8 

S 
9 

7 
8 

7 

> 

7 
8 

8 
9 

9 

10 

9 

9 

9 

10 

IO 

11 

10 

10 

10 

1 1 

ii 

12 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

12 

12 

13 

12 

12 

12 

13 

13 

14 

J3 

13 

13 

M 

14 

15 

14 

14 

14 

IS 

«S 

16 

15 

15 

x5 

16 

16 

17 

16 

16 

16 

17 

17 

18 

J7 

17 

17 

18 

18 

19 

18 

18 

18 

19 

19 

20 

J9 

19 

19 

20 

20 

21 

20 

20 

20 

21 

21 

22 

21 

21 

21 

22 

22 

23 

22 

22 

22 

23 

23 

24 

23 

23 

23 

24 

24 

25 

24 

24 

24 

-5 

25 

26 

-5 

25 

25 

26 

26 

27 

26 

26 

26 

27 

27 

28 

-7 

27 

27 

28 

28 

29 

28 

28 

28 

29 

29 

30 

29 

29 

29 

3° 

30 

3i 

30 
3i 

30 
May  1 

30 

31 

§  38 


I-IORSK  MANAGEMENT 


25 


TABLE    I—fjContitiwtJ) 


Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Date 

.  Due  to 
Poal 

July  2 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Poal 

July  i 

June  1 

Aug.  1 

Sept.  1 

Aug.  2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

4 

4 

5 
6 

4 

5 
6 

4 

5 
6 

5 
6 

7 

4 

5 
6 

5 
6 

7 

7 
8 

7 
8 

7 
8 

8 
9 

7 
8 

8 
9 

9 

9 

9 

10 

9 

10 

IO 

10 

10 

1 1 

10 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

12 

1 1 

1 2 

12 

12 

12 

13 

12 

13 

13 

13 

13 

14 

13 

14 

14 

14 

14 

15 

14 

iS 

15 
16 

*5 

16 

15 

16 

16 
17 

15 

16 

16 
17 

17 
18 

17 
18 

17 

18 

18 
19 

17 

18 

18 
19 

19 

19 

19 

20 

19 

20 

20 

20 

20 

21 

20 

21 

21 

21 

21 

22 

21 

22 

22 

22 

22 

23 

2  2 

23 

23 

23 

23 

24 

23 

24 

24 

24 

24 

25 

24 

25 

25 

2b 

25 

26 

25 

26 

26 

26 

26 

27 

26 

27 

27 
28 

27 
28 

27 

28 

28 
29 

27 
28 

28 
29 

29 

29 

29 

3° 

29 

3° 

3° 
31 

30 

i  July  1 

1 

30 
3i 

31 
Aug.  1 

1 

30 

31 

26 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


38 


TABLE    I—  {Continued) 


Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Date 
Bred 

Due  to 
Foal 

Oct.  i 

Sept.  1 

Nov.  1 

Oct.  2 

Dec.  1 

Nov.  I 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

4 

4 

5 
6 

5 
6 

5 
6 

6 
7 

5 
6 

5 
6 

7 
•8 

7 
8 

7 
8 

8 
9 

7 
8 

7 
8 

9 

9 

9 

10 

9 

9 

IO 

10 

10 

1 1 

10 

10 

1 1 

1 1 

1 1 

12 

1 1 

1  1 

12 

12 

1 2 

13 

1  2 

12 

U 

13 

J3 

M 

13 

13 

14 

14 

14 

iS 

14 

14 

'5 
16 

'5 
16 

IS 

16 

16 
17 

15 
16 

'5 
16 

17 
18 

'7 
18 

17 
18 

18 
19 

17 

18 

17 
18 

19 

19 

19 

20 

19 

19 

20 

20 

20 

21 

20 

20 

21 

21 

21 

22 

21 

21 

22 

22 

22 

23 

22 

22 

23 

23 

23 

24 

23 

23 

24 

24 

24 

25 

24 

24 

25 
26 

25 
26 

25 
26 

26 

27 

25 
26 

25 
26 

27 
28 

27 
28 

27 
28 

28 
29 

27 
28 

27 
28 

29 

29 

29 

30 

29 

29 

3° 
3i 

30 
Oct.  1 

30 

31 

3° 
3i 

30 
Dec.  1 

§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  27 

2  parts;  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  \{  pounds  per  100  pounds  of 
live  weight. 

Feeds  that  tend  to  cause  constipation,  as  well  as  those 
that  are  laxative  in  effect,  and  all  strong  drugs,  such  as 
purgatives,  should  not  be  fed  at  any  stage  of  pregnancy. 

Mares  have  a  tendency  to  fatten  as  pregnancy  advances. 
This  must  be  guarded  against,  as  it  is  possible  for  a  mare  to 
become  so  fat  that  the  development  of  the  fetus  will  be  inter- 
fered with,  and  abortion  may  occur  or  certain  troubles  such 
as  milk  fever  may  result  at  parturition.  Heavy  feeding  pre- 
vious to  foaling  should  be  avoided.  After  foaling,  a  light 
feed,  mostly  bran  and  oats,  should  be  fed  for  about  a  week. 

31.  Care  of  Pregnant  Mares. — Mares  that  are  in  a  preg- 
nant condition  must  have  careful  treatment.  They  should 
not  necessarily  be  allowed  to  live  in  idleness;  in  fact,  it  is 
better  to  work  them  regularly  under  proper  management 
and  handling.  Everything  should  be  done  to  keep  a  preg- 
nant mare  in  the  best  possible  health  and  physical  condition, 
and  this  requires  regular  exercise,  wholesome  feed,  and  a 
good,  dry,  comfortable  bed  at  night. 

Pregnant  mares  should  have  particular  attention  when 
working  in  a  team  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  fret  or  worry 
as  a  result  of  being  unevenly  matched  or  some  such  cause. 
Fright,  slipping,  and  straining  from  overloading  should  be 
avoided,  and  hard  blows  should  never  be  given  to  a  pregnant 
mare. 

During  the  winter  season,  when  not  at  work,  mares  in  foal 
should  have  plenty  of  exercise,  but  in  cold  climates  should 
not  be  allowed  to  rough  it  outdoors,  as  is  frequently  done. 
It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  turn  them  out  with  other  farm 
horses  and  subject  them  to  injuries  from  kicks  and  blows; 
however,  this  danger  is  not  great  if  the  number  running 
together  is  not  more  than  three  or  four.  Pregnant  mares 
should  not  be  turned  into  a  lot  or  pasture  where  they  will  be 
annoyed  by  young  stallions.  Brood  mares  may  be  worked 
at  slow  work  to  within  a  few  days  of  foaling  without  harm, 
provided  they  are  handled  carefully  and  the  work  is  not  too 


28  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

heavy;  in  fact,  they  are  better  off  if  worked  than  if  allowed 
to  stand  in  a  box  stall  or  turned  into  a  small  lot  where  they 
will  not  take  exercise.  Many  mares  are  worked  up  to  the 
day  of  foaling  without  ill  results.  During  the  last  stages 
of  pregnancy,  however,  they  should  not  be  required  to  exert 
themselves  in  starting  up  a  heavy  load  or  pulling  in  mud, 
or,  in  fact,  doing  anything  that  might  produce  abortion. 

32.  Signs  of  Parturition. — Because  of  the  uncertainty 
of  the  length  of  the  gestation  period,  pregnant  mares  should 
be  closely  watched  from  the  tenth  month  until  parturition. 
There  are  certain  signs  of  the  near  approach  of  parturition 
that  rarely  fail.  The  udder  often  becomes  greatly  distended 
sometime  before  foaling,  but  the  teats  seldom  fill  out  full 
and  plump  to  the  end  more  than  2  or  3  days  before  the  foal 
is  born.  Other  signs  of  the  approach  of  parturition  are  an 
enlargement  of  the  vulva  and  a  reddening  of  the  lining  of 
the  vagina.  About  a  week  before  foaling,  there  is  a  marked 
falling  away  or  depression  of  the  rump  muscles.  About 
24  hours  before  foaling,  usually  less,  a  clear  wax  will  form 
on  the  ends  of  the  nipples;  this  wax  should  not  be  confused 
with  that  formed  from  milk  that  escapes  from  the  udder 
due  to  its  distension. 

33.  Parturition. — At  parturition  the  mouth  of  the  womb 
dilates,  the  vagina  and  vulva  enlarge,  and  the  fetus  is  pre- 
ceded by  the  passing  of  water  bags,  which  serve  as  a  lubri- 
cant, and  is  followed  by  the  afterbirth.  The  normal  presen- 
tation of  the  fetus  is  fore  feet  first,  with  the  head  between  the 
front  legs,  which  act  as  a  wedge  in  dilating  the  passage. 
Sometimes  a  foal  is  born  with  a  rear  presentation,  but  ordi- 
narily this  does  not  give  trouble.  If  a  mare  needs  assistance 
in  delivering  the  fetus,  because  of  an  abnormal  size  or  pre- 
sentation, help  should  be  rendered  as  soon  as  possible.  A 
mare  should  not  be  allowed  to  labor  more  than  an  hour 
before  an  investigation  is  made,  as  the  chances  for  a  successful 
delivery  are  increased  if  assistance  is  given  before  the  mare 
is  exhausted  and  the  parts  become  dry  and  swollen.  The 
fetus  should  be  put  in  the  best  possible  position  for  handling 


§  38  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  29 

and  then  pulled  gently  in  a  downward  direction.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  avoid  injuring  the  mare  by  bruising,  tearing,  or 
cutting  the  tissue;  this  is  liable  to  cause  inflammation  and 
blood  poison.  If,  on  investigation,  the  case  is  found  to  be  a 
difficult  one,  a  skilled  veterinary  surgeon  should  be  called, 
as  it  may  be  necessary  to  segregate  the  fetus  in  order  to 
save  the  life  of  the  mare. 

34.     Care  of  Mares  and  Foals  After  Parturition. — At  the 

birth  of  foals,  or  very  soon  thereafter,  the  umbilical,  or  navel, 
cord  is  usually  severed  by  being  broken,  which  is  better  than 
cutting  it.  As  a  rule,  ligating  is  not  necessary;  however, 
there  can  be  no  harm  in  doing  this,  provided  the  ligature  is 
made  with  a  sterilized  silk  cord  and  tied  about  an  inch  from 
the  body  of  the  foal.  When  there  is  undue  bleeding,  a  ligature 
may  be  necessary,  but  such  conditions  rarely  occur.  As  a 
precaution  against  the  entrance  of  germs,  which  are  likely 
to  cause  what  is  commonly  known  as  joint,  or  navel,  disease, 
the  cord  should  be  saturated  morning  and  evening,  until 
dried  up,  in  a  solution  of  2  drams  of  corrosive  sublimate  to 
1  pint  of  boiling  water  and  to  which  has  been  added  2  drams 
of  tincture  of  iron  after  the  solution  has  cooled.  The  foal's 
belly  around  the  cord  should  be  smeared  with  carbolized 
vaseline  or  unsalted  lard  before  the  corrosive-sublimate  solu- 
tion is  used,  in  order  to  keep  it  from  blistering,  and  the 
sloughing  portions  of  the  cord  should  be  removed  each  morn- 
ing until  the  cord  is  entirely  healed.  The  stall  should  be 
cleaned  immediately  after  the  foal  has  been  dropped,  and  the 
afterbirth  and  litter  burned.  It  is  desirable  that  the  stall 
should  be  located  so  as  to  admit  as  much  sunlight  as  possible, 
be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  disinfected  every  day  with 
some  good  disinfectant.  The  proper  kind  of  stall  for  a  mare 
at  parturition  has  already  been  described  in  a  previous  Section. 
The  condition  of  the  digestive  system  of  the  dam  should 
be  carefully  watched,  as  anything  that  affects  the  mother 
will  likely  produce  a  similar  condition  in  the  colt.  The 
mare's  bowels  should  be  kept  open  after  foaling,  but  not 
too  loose. 


30  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §38 

If  a  mare  has  been  worked  regularly  up  to  the  time  of 
foaling,  she  should  have  a  rest  of  at  least  2  weeks  before  being 
put  to  work  again,  and  for  a  time  the  work  should  be  light. 
As  work  requires  the  expenditure  of  energy,  it  is  impossible 
for  a  mare  to  give  as  large  a  flow  of  milk  when  being  worked 
as  when  idle  and  running  on  pasture.  The  colt  should  not 
be  allowed  to  follow  its  dam  while  she  is  at  work,  but  should 
be  kept  in  the  barn.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  starting 
the  mare  at  work,  as  the  milk  from  a  heated  mare  frequently 
causes  a  colt  to  scour.  For  this  reason  it  is  best  to  take  the 
mare  to  the  barn  every  hour  or  two  the  first  day  that  she  is 
worked  and  allow  the  colt  to  nurse ;  in  this  way  it  will  not  get 
a  large  quantity  of  milk  at  any  one  time.  This  may  seem 
to  be  a  good  deal  of  trouble,  but  the  health  of  the  foal  demands 
it.  After  a  few  days  there  will  not  be  the  same  danger,  and 
in  a  week  the  colt  will  be  able  to  go  4  or  5  hours  without 
nursing. 

35.  Feeding  of  Mares  After  Parturition. — For  about  3  days 
after  foaling,  mares  should  be  given  a  light  grain  feed  of  oats 
and  bran,  and  good  clean  hay,  preferably  clover  or  alfalfa. 
The  ration  should  be  light,  as  a  colt  does  not  need  a  large 
supply  of  milk  the  first  few  days  of  its  life.  During  this  time 
the  water  given  to  the  mare  should  be  warmed;  it  is  advi- 
sable to  give  it  frequently  and  in  small  quantities.  If,  at  the 
end  of  from  3  to  4  days  the  mare  and  foal  are  in  good  con- 
dition, the  ration  should  be  gradually  increased,  in  order  to 
stimulate  the  flow  of  milk.  If  the  colt's  bowels  are  properly 
regulated  and  its  mother  is  doing  well,  but  little  trouble 
should  be  experienced  from  this  time  on.  If  the  weather  is 
warm,  the  best  place  for  the  dam  and  foal  is  on  a  clean  pas- 
ture and  out  in  the  sun.  When  the  grass  is  short  it  should 
be  supplemented  with  some  other  green  feed,  or  some  grain, 
in  order  to  stimulate  the  milk  flow  for  the  foal.  A  succulent 
feed,  especially,  is  desirable  under  such  conditions. 

A  mare  that  is  working  and  suckling  a  foal  requires  a  little 
heavier  ration  than  is  usually  prescribed  for  work  horses, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  she  is  producing  milk  in  addition  to 


§38 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT  31 


supplying  energy  for  work.  The  ration  should  be  a  highly 
nutritious  one  that  will  produce  a  good  flow  of  milk;  for  this 
purpose  good  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  fed  in  conjunction  with 
corn  and  oats  is  desirable.  If  good  afalfa  or  clover  hay  is 
not  available,  some  linseed  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  should 
be  added  to  the  ration.  Ordinarily,  H  pounds  of  grain  and 
1J  pounds  of  hay  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight  will  be  suf- 
ficient, although  it  may  be  necessary  to  increase  the  grain 
to  1J  pounds  per  100  pounds  of  live  weight  if  the  mare  shows 
signs  of  getting  in  poor  condition.  When  such  a  grain  ration 
is  fed  it  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  the  grain  with  chopped  hay  in 
order  to  prevent  any  serious  digestive  disturbances. 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 

(PART  2) 


MANAGEMENT  OF  VARIOUS   CLASSES 
OF    HORSES— (Continued) 


BREEDING   HORSES— (Continued) 


STALLIONS 

1.  Methods  of  Purchasing  Stallions. — In  farming  com- 
munities the  large  majority  of  stallions  are  owned  either  by- 
individuals,  who  offer  them  for  public  service  at  a  fixed  charge, 
or  by  an  organization  of  farmers  commonly  termed  a  company; 
in  the  latter  case  the  stallions  may  or'  may  not  be  offered  for 
public  service.  The  cost  of  a  good  stallion  is  high,  and  com- 
paratively few  individual  farmers  keep  a  sufficient  number  of 
brood  mares  to  justify  the  expense.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
several  farmers  form  a  company,  they  can  purchase  a  good 
sire  at  a  nominal  cost  to  each.  This  plan  seems  to  be  gaining 
in  favor,  as  it  not  only  affords  the  owners  a  means  of  breeding 
their  mares  to  a  good  stallion,  but  may  also  be  a  source  of  profit 
if  the  stallion  is  offered  for  public  service. 

When  an  individual  is  financially  able  to  own  a  stallion, 
it  is  preferable  to  the  company  plan,  as  he  can  then  use  his 
own  judgment  in  selecting  a  horse  suitable  for  mating  with 
his  mares.  When  the  company  plan  is  adopted,  the  company 
should  not  be  too  large;  from  three  to  six  members  is  better 
for  the  purpose  than  a  larger  number.  The  company  should 
be  originated  by  the  members  themselves  and  not  by  some 

COPYRIOHTED  BY  INTERNATIONAL  TEXTBOOK  COMPANY.       ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'    HALL.   LONDON 

§39 


2  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

unknown  salesman  hired  and  sent  out  by  a  dealer.  The  mem- 
bers should  be  men  that  can  agree  as  to  the  kind  of  a  stallion 
needed  and  the  price  that  should  be  paid.  A  company  organ- 
ized by  a  salesman  and  in  which  one  or  two  influential  men 
have  been  given  shares  as  a  consideration  for  lending  their 
influence,  usually  results  sooner  or  later  in  dissatisfaction. 
A  good  many  stalhons  have  been  placed  in  companies  by  sales- 
men at  such  high  prices  that  it  was  impossible  to  realize  returns 
on  the  investment.  If  a  stallion  is  to  be  purchased  by  a  com- 
pany, the  best  horseman  in  the  company,  or  a  committee  of 
two  or  three  members,  should  be  given  the  responsibility  of 
making  the  selection. 

Sometimes  it  is  possible  for  a  company  of  men  to  lease  a 
stallion  for  a  season  if  they  do  not  wish  to  incur  the  expense 
of  purchasing  one  or  if  they  desire  the  services  of  a  horse  that 
is  not  for  sale.  The  owner  may  or  may  not  send  a  stud  groom 
along  with  the  horse,  according  to  the  terms. 

2.  Stallions  are  sold  at  public  auction  or  at  private  sale. 
If  a  person  is  not  a  good  judge  of  stallions  and  is  not  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  their  value,  it  would  be  best  to  buy  at  private 
sale,  provided  the  purchase  can  be  made  from  a  reputable 
dealer.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  buyer  is  experienced,  he  can 
occasionally  find  bargains  at  public  auctions.  Many  public 
auctions  are  merely  clearance  sales  in  which  a  breeder  or  dealer 
takes  advantage  of  an  opportunity  for  disposing  of  undesirable 
animals. 

3.  Selecting  of  Stallions. — There  is  no  better  guide  in  the 
selection  of  a  stallion  than  the  quality  of  his  offspring.  A  sire 
may  have  an  exceptionally  good  conformation  and  yet  lack 
prepotency.  The  best  test  of  any  stallion  is  his  performance 
and  not  his  appearance.  Of  course,  in  many  cases,  such  as 
when  the  stallion  purchased  is  too  young  to  sire  colts  or  where 
he  is  purchased  from  a  dealer  at  a  distance,  it  is  impossible  to 
observe  many,  if  any,  of  his  colts. 

The  external  characters  to  be  sought  in  a  stallion  are:  a 
masculine  appearance,  a  deep  chest,  long  and  oblique  shoulders, 
a  short  back,  a  long  croup,  smooth  hips,  heavy  thighs  and  quar- 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  3 

ters,  good  feet  and  bone,  and  good,  straight  action.  The 
stallion  should  be  pure  bred;  a  grade  stallion,  even  though 
an  excellent  animal,  is  often  deficient  in  prepotency  and  is 
likely  to  stamp  his  offspring  with  scrub  characters.  Medium- 
sized  stallions  are  more  likely  to  prove  uniform  breeders  than 
exceptionally  large  or  small  ones. 

In  purchasing  a  stallion,  it  is  well  to  be  sure  that  he  is  a 
breeder.  Instead  of  taking  a  year  or  two  to  try  him  out,  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  collect  some  of  his  seminal  fluid  and, 
by  means  of  a  compound  microscope,  make  an  examination 
of  the  spermatozoa.  The  general  appearance  of  these  has 
already  been  described  in  Principles  of  Animal  Breeding.  If 
they  are  alive  and  active  there  should  be  no  question  about  the 
stallion  being  a  breeder.  The  more  activity  the  spermatozoa 
display  the  more  potent  the  stallion,  and  the  surer  he  is  in 
impregnating  mares,  provided  he  is  a  good  server. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  purchase  a  stallion  that  is  too  far 
advanced  in  years,  as  in  that  case  his  value  will  depreciate 
each  year,  and,  too,  his  powers  as  a  breeder  may  be  on  the  wane. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  stallion  that  is  too  young  should  not  be 
chosen.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  a  2-year-old  stallion  on  a  few 
mares,  not  more  than  about  six,  just  to  break  him  in  and  test 
his  breeding  qualities,  but  a  stallion  of  this  age  should  not  be 
selected  for  regular  breeding.  For  regular  stud  service,  a 
stallion  not  less  than  4  or  5  years  old  should  be  selected. 

4.     Feeding  of  Stallions  Out  of  the  Breeding  Season.— The 

feeding  of  stallions  out  of  the  breeding  season  should  be  such 
as  to  keep  them  in  good  condition  without  permitting  them  to 
become  excessively  fat.  If  they  are  worked  regularly  their 
feed  need  not  differ  from  that  given  to  work  horses.  However, 
it  is  not  advisable  to  feed  a  stallion  large  quantities  of  corn 
or  other  feeds  that  are  highly  fattening.  A  continued  use  of 
a  richly  carbonaceous  ration  with  but  little  exercise  has  a 
tendency  to  produce  a  sterile  condition  in  the  stallion,  as  a 
result  of  fatty  degeneration  of  the  generative  organs.  If  the 
stallion  is  young  and  immature,  he  should  receive  more  protein 
and  bone-forming  feeds  than  is  needed  for  a  mature  horse. 

243—38 


4  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

5.  Care  of  Stallions  Out  of  the  Breeding  Season. — One  of 

the  best  ways  to  condition  a  stallion  for  the  breeding  season 
is  to  put  him  at  work.  This  will  insure  that  he  receives  plenty 
of  exercise,  regular  feeding  and  grooming,  and  the  companion- 
ship of  other  horses.  Work  will  also  help  to  keep  him  from 
acquiring  bad  habits,  such  as  pawing,  weaving  in  the  stall, 
cribbing,  lip  slapping,  tongue  sucking,  and  masturbating. 

It  is  not  difficult,  as  a  rule,  to  break  a  stallion  to  work  if 
he  is  put  in  the  hands  of  a  careful  horseman  and  taught  to 
obey  when  he  is  young.  When  a  stallion  is  worked  in  a  team, 
it  should  be  with  a  mare  rather  than  with  a  gelding,  but  if  the 
mare  is  not  pregnant,  the  driver  should  constantly  be  on  the 
lookout  for  an  attempt  at  copulation.  If  the  stallion  is  inclined 
to  nip,  a  jockey  stick  should  be  attached  to  his  bit  and  the  other 
end  attached  to  his  mate's  hame.  If  treated  kindly,  he  will 
make  a  good  worker  and  do  as  much  as  any  other  horse. 

Common  farm  work  is  suitable  for  a  draft  stallion,  and  the 
work  given  to  him  need  be  no  lighter  or  heavier  than  that 
given  to  the  other  farm  draft  horses.  A  light  stallion  should 
be  put  at  the  kind  of  work  to  which  he  is  adapted.  If  he  is 
a  high-acting  horse  or  has  special  gaits,  it  is  not  advisable 
to  put  him  at  farm  work,  as  it  would  stiffen  him  and  render 
him  less  able  to  show  the  qualities  he  possesses.  Ordinarily, 
a  stallion  is  not  adapted  to  choring  unless  it  is  in  a  single 
harness. 

As  soon  as  the  breeding  season  is  over  a  stallion  should  be 
put  at  work  again,  unless  it  is  expected  to  show  him,  in  which 
case  a  heavy  grain  ration  should  be  fed  to  him  in  order  to  flesh 
him  up.  If  he  is  not  worked,  he  should  be  driven  or  led  to 
insure  that  he  gets  the  necessary  exercise,  which,  at  first, 
should  be  moderate;  later,  if  a  draft  stallion,  he  should  be  driven 
not  less  than  5  miles  per  day,  and  if  a  road  stallion,  not  less 
than  10  miles  per  day. 

6.  Feeding    of    Stallions    During    the    Breeding    Season. 

The  sexual  tax  on  a  stallion  during  the  breeding  season  makes 
it  necessary  that  he  be  fed  a  highly  nitrogenous  ration,  as  the 
principal  part  of  the  seminal  fluid  is  composed  of  albuminous 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  5 

matter.  During  this  time  there  is  nothing  better  to  feed  than 
good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  with  oats  and  bran  and  a  very  little 
corn.  A  grain  ration  composed  of  2  parts  of  oats,  1  part  of 
corn,  and  1  part  of  bran,  by  weight,  combined  with  a  roughage 
ration  of  1  part  of  alfalfa  hay  and  1  part  of  timothy  or  prairie 
hay  will  give  satisfactory  results.  Because  of  the  low  protein 
content  of  corn,  a  large  quantity  should  not  be  fed.  During 
the  breeding  season  a  stallion  requires  about  the  same  quantity 
of  feed  as  horses  at  hard  work. 

7.  Handling  of  Service  Stallions. — If  a  stallion  has  been 
carefully  handled  and  taught  to  serve  properly  when  young, 
he  should  not  be  hard  to  handle  in  serving  mares.  It  is  advi- 
sable to  teach  a  young  stallion  to  serve  by  using  an  old  or  a 
hobbled  mare.  He  should  be  allowed  to  start  the  service 
before  he  gets  a  complete  erection  of  the  penis,  should  be  taught 
to  approach  quietly  and  mount  at  right  angles  from  the  left 
side,  and  should  be  allowed  to  remain  with  the  mare  until 
he  voluntarily  dismounts;  in  a  good  service,  the  stallion  should 
remain  long  enough  for  a  complete  wilting  and  retraction  of 
the  penis.  It  too  often  happens  that  the  stud  groom  tries 
to  take  the  stallion  away  before  he  has  thoroughly  completed 
the  service;  this,  in  the  case  of  young  stallions,  teaches  a  wrong 
habit  for  making  a  good  service. 

In  serving  a  mare,  a  stallion  should  always  be  compelled  to 
mount  from  the  left  side.  This  will  be  found  advantageous, 
because  the  groom  can  direct  the  operations  more  conveniently 
than  when  the  stallion  is  permitted  to  mount  from  the  right 
side.  The  stallion  should  be  allowed  to  start  the  service 
before  he  gets  a  complete  erection,  because  the  penis  can  then 
be  easily  handled.  The  groom  should  direct  the  penis  into 
the  vagina;  in  the  case  of  old  mares  the  vulva  is  often  sunken 
and  the  groom  must  exercise  care  in  directing  the  penis  to  pre- 
vent it  from  injuring  the  anus  or  rectum.  The  stallion  should 
be  permitted  to  complete  the  service  before  dismounting,  as 
already  explained  for  young  stallions. 

Occasionally,  a  nervous  stallion  is  found  that  will  not  dis- 
charge if  he  gets  too  rigid  an  erection  before  being  allowed  to 


6  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

mount.  This  is  termed  coming  off  proud.  Such  a  stallion 
should  not  be  used  as  a  teaser,  if  it  can  be  avoided;  when  it 
cannot  be  avoided,  he  should  be  put  back  in  the  stall  and 
allowed  to  cool  down,  and  when  taken  out  again  allowed  to 
mount  immediately.  "Where  there  are  a  number  of  service 
stallions,  it  may  be  advisable  to  keep  a  cheap  stallion  to  do 
all  of  the  teasing ;  this  will  save  the  others  considerable  fretting. 

8.  Care  of  Stallions  During  the  Breeding  Season. — When 
the  breeding  season  begins  the  stallion  will  not  be  able  to  do 
as  much  work  as  before,  as  stud  duties  are  a  tax  on  his  energies. 
However,  he  should  be  able  to  do  a  half  day's  work  even  during 
the  heaviest  part  of  the  breeding  season.  If  he  is  not  worked, 
he  should  have  about  the  same  amount  of  regular  exercise 
as  recommended  for  stallions  out  of  the  breeding  season. 

When  doing  regular  stud  service,  not  more  than  two  mares 
a  day  should  be  served,  as  a  rule.  On  the  day  immediately 
following  a  period  of  idleness  it  is  possible  but  not  advisable 
for  a  stallion  to  serve  four  mares,  or  even  more;  three  services 
is  the  maximum  number  that  should  ever  be  permitted  in  one 
day.  and  this  only  in  rare  cases  when  the  stallion  can  be  allowed 
to  rest  the  following  day.  A  larger  percentage  of  mares  will 
be  got  in  foal  if  only  one  service  a  day  is  made.  By  adopting 
the  plan  of  having  a  definite  hour  each  day  for  breeding  and 
by  using  the  capsule  method  of  artificial  msernination  more 
mares  can  be  bred  in  a  season  and  with  less  tax  on  the  stallion 
and  less  annoyance  to  his  owner  than  by  the  usual  plan  of 
permitting  the  stallion  to  serve  at  different  times  during  the 
day.  As  a  rule,  a  convenient  time  for  this  purpose  is  3  or  4 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

Xo  liquid  other  than  warm  water  should  be  used  for  cleansing 
a  stallion's  penis.  A  better  way  than  washing  it  is  to  insert 
dampened  bran  into  the  sheath  and  allow  it  to  remain  there 
until  worked  out  by  the  penis. 

is  a  good  plan  for  a  stud  groom  to  have  a  compound 
miscroscope  that  will  magnify  about  500  times  and  at  each 
service  of  a  stallion,  or  frequently,  examine  a  little  of  his 
seminal  fluid  and  determine  his  breeding  condition.     If  no 


§  39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  7 

spermatozoa  can  be  found  it  is  not  probable  that  the  service 
will  amount  to  anything,  and  it  should  be  repeated  the  next 
day;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  owner  can  show  the  owner  of 
the  mare  that  the  stallion  is  in  perfect  breeding  condition 
and  that  it  is  the  fault  of  the  mare  if  she  does  not  conceive, 
it  will  lessen  criticism  of  the  stallion.  There  may  be  days 
when  the  stallion  is  in  ill  health,  during  which  time  he  will 
not  sire  any  colts,  and  it  is  well  for  the  owner  to  know  when 
such  periods  occur. 

9.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  stallion  gets  to  masturbating 
to  such  an  extent  that  he  will  sire  but  few  colts.  As  a  rule, 
stallions  are  sensitive  about  their  self -abuse,  and  many  of 
them  will  not  do  it  when  being  watched.  When  the  owner 
is  not  sure  that  a  stallion  is  masturbating,  but  suspects  that 
he  is,  in  order  to  get  positive  evidence  all  of  the  bedding  should 
be  removed  and  the  stable  floor  thoroughly  cleaned  and  aired 
out  until  dry.  When  the  stallion  is  put  back  in  the  stall, 
if  he  has  such  a  habit  it  can  be  detected  by  the  presence  of 
seminal  fluid  on  the  floor.  The  masturbating  habit  is  extremely 
hard  to  break  and  usually  requires  the  constant  use  of  a  shield, 
of  which  there  are  a  number  of  kinds  on  the  market ;  the  most 
successful  one  is  an  electric  shield  that  gives  a  slight  shock 
as  the  stallion  attempts  to  extend  his  penis. 

If  a  stallion  has  been  worked  regularly  before  the  breeding 
season  opened,  and  his  work  is  reduced  to  periods  of  one-half 
day  when  he  is  doing  stud  sendee,  the  bodily  processes  should 
gradually  build  up  and  he  should  be  in  better  condition  and 
weigh  more  at  the  end  of  the  season  than  at  the  beginning. 
On  the  other  hand,  stallions  that  are  fat  at  the  beginning  of 
the  breeding  season  and  are  not  hardened  up,  will  usually 
finish  the  season  in  a  much  reduced  condition,  which  is  alto- 
gether detrimental  to  the  animal. 

10.  Length  of  Breeding  Season. — The  length  of  the  breed- 
ing season  varies  in  different  localities.  In  some  sections  most 
of  the  mares  are  bred  in  the  spring  and  in  other  sections  fall 
breeding  is  practiced  more  or  less  extensively.  The  length  of 
the  season  is  usually  determined  more  by  the  wishes  of  patrons 


8  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

than  by  any  arbitrary  limitations  fixed  by  the  stud  keeper. 
Mares  are  harder  to  get  in  foal  in  early  spring  than  after  the 
weather  gets  warmer.  For  this  reason  it  is  likely  that  most 
of  the  spring  breeding  will  be  done  in  April  and  May.  The 
stallion  owner  will  find  that  by  judicious  advertising  he  will 
have  some  mares  coming  in  for  sendee  from  early  in  the  spring 
until  late  in  the  fall. 

11.  Advertising  of  Stallions. — If  a  stallion  can  be  worked, 
about  the  best  way  to  advertise  his  merits  as  an  individual  is 
to  put  him  in  a  smart  set  of  harness,  hitch  him  with  a  mare 
that  mates  him  well,  and  show  that  he  can  be  worked.  The 
fact  that  he  can  be  worked  removes  all  doubt  concerning  his 
disposition.  Before  the  breeding  season  opens  he  should  be 
driven  to  near-by  villages  on  Saturday  afternoons  and  at  such 
other  times  as  he  will  be  seen  by  most  of  the  people  of  the  com- 
munity. It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  a  few  exhibitions  of  his 
action  at  different  times,  doing  it  in  an  unostentatious  way, 
and  to  stop  occasionally  where  he  can  be  seen,  for  it  will  not 
be  long  before  a  crowd  will  gather  to  look  him  over  and  discuss 
his  good  and  bad  qualities.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  a  neat  pair 
of  blankets  to  throw  on  will  add  to  his  attractiveness.  If  he 
can  be  safely  tied  to  a  hitch  rack  all  the  better,  but  he  should 
not  be  left  alone  long  at  one  time. 

Liberal  advertising  should  be  done  in  local  papers  and  by 
attractive  posters  to  call  attention  to  the  stallion's  merits  and 
the  honors  that  he  and  his  ancestors  have  won.  Small  circu- 
lars bearing  a  cut  made  from  a  photograph  of  the  stallion  and 
that  give  his  name,  pedigree,  terms  of  sendee,  the  owner's 
name  and  address,  etc.,  will  be  found  useful  to  hand  out  or  to 
mail  to  prospective  customers. 

12.  Breeding  Contracts. — The  breeding  contract  should 
be  for  the  stallion  to  insure  a  mare  in  foal.  When  a  stallion 
has  done  that,  he  has  done  all  that  is  in  his  power  to  do.  If 
the  owner  of  the  mare  is  not  willing  to  take  some  risk,  he  had 
better  not  breed  her.  No  stallion  ever  lived  that  could  always 
sire  a  living  colt,  and  in  most  cases  where  the  colts  do  not  live 
it  is  due  to  an  accident  that  has  happened  to  the  mare,  or  to 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  9 

the  fault  of  the  owner  in  handling  her.  If  the  stallion  owner 
is  obliged  to  insure  a  live  colt  he  must  charge  a  larger  service 
fee  in  order  to  cover  the  loss  entailed  by  those  that  are  not  born 
alive.  By  insuring  colts  to  stand  and  suck,  the  responsibility 
is  not  placed  on  the  careless  and  shiftless  man,  where  it  should 
be  placed.  However,  because  of  the  prevailing  practice  in  a 
locality,  it  may  be  necessary  to  haw  terms  for  several  condi- 
tions— that  is,  a  price  for  a  single-leap  service,  a  price  for  the 
season,  another  to  insure  a  mare  in  foal,  and  still  another  to 
insure  a  living  colt  or  one  that  will  stand  and  suck. 


COLTS 

13.  Care  and  Feeding  of  Colts  From  Birth  to  Weaning 
Time. — It  is  advisable  for  an  attendant  to  be  near  at  hand 
when  a  mare  is  undergoing  parturition,  to  see  that  the  foal  is 
safely  born,  and  to  care  for  it,  if  necessary,  after  it  has  been 
dropped.  If  strong  and  vigorous,  it  should  nurse  within  a 
few  hours  after  being  dropped ;  however,  a  refusal  to  do  so  need 
not  cause  undue  alarm,  for  it  can  go  12  hours  without  harm. 
The  first  milk  of  the  dam,  called  colostrum,  possesses  purga- 
tive properties  and  serves  as  a  physic  for  the  foal.  When  taken 
into  the  stomach  it  starts  peristaltic  action  and  causes  the 
passing  of -the  first  feces,  which  usually  occurs  within  5  or  6 
hours.  If  the  discharge  does  not  take  place  within  24  hours 
and  the  colt  seems  sick,  2  ounces  of  castor  oil  should  be  given 
and  then  an  injection  of  warm  water  to  which  a  tablespoonful 
of  glycerine  has  been  added;  this  will  usually  start  peristaltic 
action  and  cause  the  passage  of  the  fecal  matter.  The  water 
should  be  near  body  temperature,  or  99.6°  F.,  and  should  be 
admitted  into  the  rectum  very  slowly.  It  is  advisable  to 
lubricate  the  nozzle  of  the  syringe  with  vaseline  before  it  is 
introduced. 

As  anything  that  affects  the  dam  will  indirectly  affect  the 
foal,  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  care  and  feeding  of  the  for- 
mer. A  mare  should  not  receive  a  heavy  grain  ration  prior  to 
foaling,  and  for  the  first  few  days  of  the  colt's  life  her  feed 
should   be   light  and  loosening.     As  soon  as   the  colt  is  well 


10 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


§39 


started,  from  7  to  10 
days  old,  and  able 
to  take  considerable 
milk,  the  mare  should 
be  fed  a  larger  ration 
to  stimulate  her  milk 
flow.  Purgatives  and 
like  medicines  should 
be  avoided. 

14.  When  about 
2  months  old,  a  colt 
should  be  induced  to 
eat  grain;  all  that  it 
will  clean  up  should 
be  fed  in  a  box  at  the 
side  of  its  dam,  or,  if 
the  dam  is  running  on 
pasture,  the  colt  can 
be  fed  in  a  pen  such 
as  that  illustrated  in 
Fig.  1.  This  pen  is 
made  of  boards  nailed 
at  the  tops  of  posts  so 
that  a  colt  can  get 
under  them  but  a 
larger  horse  will  be 
unable  to  do  so.  A 
grain  trough  should 
be  provided  inside  of 
the  pen.  Several  colts 
can  be  fed  to  advan- 
tage in  the  same  pen. 

A  good  quality  of 
oats  is  the  best  grain 
to  feed  to  a  colt  at 
first;  oats  are  not  so 
hard  as  corn,  and  most 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  11 

colts  learn  to  eat  them  more  quickly.  When  the  colt  has 
become  accustomed  to  eating  oats,  a  little  corn  can  be  added  to 
the  ration  from  time  to  time  until  it  consists  of  equal  parts  of 
oats  and  corn.  Draft  colts  should  never  be  allowed  to  go 
hungry  from  the  time  they  begin  to  eat  until  they  are  matured, 
if  it  is  desired  to  have  them  grow  as  large  as  possible,  because 
size  is  secured  through  liberal  feeding  as  well  as  through 
breeding. 

15.  Colts  should  not  be  allowed  to  follow  their  dams  while 
the  latter  are  at  work  in  the  field,  as  the  worry  and  fatigue  is 
more  detrimental  than  any  benefits  to  be  derived  from  such  a 
practice.  The  first  few  days  that  the  marc  is  worked  the  colt 
should  be  allowed  to  nurse  twice  during  the  forenoon  and  twice 
during  the  afternoon;  this  is  necessary  because  the  mare  is 
pretty  sure  to  be  heated,  and  milk  from  a  heated  mare,  if 
taken  in  large  quantities  by  a  colt  that  is  not  accustomed  to  it, 
is  dangerous  to  the  colt,  as  it  is  likely  to  cause  scours.  After 
about  4  or  5  days  it  will  be  sufficient  to  take  the  mare  to  the 
colt  about  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  and  again  about  the 
middle  of  the  afternoon.  If  at  any  time  the  mare  is  kept  away 
for  an  unusually  long  time,  and  is  hot  when  brought  to  the 
colt  she  should  be  allowed  to  cool  and  eat  some  hay,  and  should 
be  partly  milked  out  by  the  attendant  before  the  colt  is  allowed 
to  nurse. 

The  colt  should  have  some  exercise  each  day;  this  it  will 
usually  get  if  it  has  a  companion  and  is  allowed  to  run  in  the 
barn  lot  mornings  and  evenings.  A  little  green  feed  such  as 
grass  or  rye  will  be  found  beneficial  for  the  colt,  and  it  should 
also  be  encouraged  to  eat  hay.  Colts  will  not  eat  hay  as  early 
in  life  as  they  will  eat  grain  but  they  can  be  taught  to  eat 
clover  and  alfalfa  hay  when  but  a  few  months  old.  The  finest 
and  best  hay  of  the  farm  should  be  preserved  each  year  for  the 
young  foals. 

Colts  that  have  done  well  should  be  weaned  when  between 
5  and  6  months  old,  as  but  little  will  be  gained  by  allowing 
them  to  nurse  longer,  provided  they  have  been  taught  to  eat 
grain  and  hay;  if  they  have  never  been  taught  to  eat,  their 


12  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

growth  is  likely  to  be  stunted  for  a  time.  At  weaning  time 
some  succulent  feed  such  as  good  pasture,  silage,  or  roots  will 
be  beneficial.  Carrots,  if  sliced  lengthwise  to  prevent  choking, 
are  an  excellent  feed  for  colts. 

When  a  large  number  of  colts  are  raised  they  should  be 
marked  for  identification  before  being  weaned.  Branding  on 
the  front  hoof  with  a  hot  iron  is  about  the  most  satisfactory 
method,  but  the  marking  must  be  renewed  occasionally, 
because  the  hoofs  grow  out.  If  the  iron  is  not  set  too  deeply 
no  harm  can  come  from  its  use.  The  next  best  thing  is  to  use 
on  each  colt  a  halter  to  which  is  riveted  a  name  plate  or  num- 
ber. The  greatest  objection  to  this  method  is  that  careless 
attendants  may  allow  the  halters  to  become  changed  or  lost, 
and  thus  the  identity  of  the  colt  may  be  lost.  Carefulness  in 
these  details  is  abundant  proof  to  the  customer  or  the  visitor 
of  the  integrity  and  truthfulness  of  the  breeder  as  to  the  authen- 
ticity of  pedigrees. 

16.  Care  and  Feeding  of  Orphan  Colts. — If  an  attendant  is 
obliged  to  feed  from  birth  an  orphan  foal  or  a  foal  that  is  insuffi- 
ciently nourished  by  its  dam,  he  should  reab'ze  that  he  is  under- 
taking a  task  requiring  a  good  deal  of  care  and  patience.  As 
in  the  case  of  all  young  animals,  food  must  be  supplied  fre- 
quently to  young  colts.  Cow's  milk  is  the  best  substitute  for 
that  of  the  mare,  although  the  latter  has  more  sugar  and  less 
fat  than  the  former.  If  cow's  milk  is  given  to  a  colt,  it  should 
first  be  modified  by  the  addition  of  1  dessert  spoonful  of  milk 
sugar  and  3  tablespoonfuls  of  lime  water  to  enough  new  milk 
to  make  up  a  pint.  The  lime  water  prevents  the  milk  from 
forming  into  large  curds  in  the  stomach.  A  Hygeia  nursing 
bottle  with  a  rubber  nipple  is  about  the  best  means  for 
giving  the  milk,  but  if  this  is  not  at  hand  an  improvised  appa- 
ratus can  be  made  by  tying  to  the  spout  of  a  teapot  the  finger 
of  a  kid  glove  in  the  end  of  which  a  hole  has  been  punched  so 
that  the  milk  can  flow  through  it.  The  glove  and  teapot 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  sterilized  with  boiling  water 
each  time  before  they  are  used  and  again  after  each  feeding. 
The  milk  should  be  warmed  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  F. 


§  39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  13 

before  feeding  it.  It  is  advisable  when  teaching  a  colt  to  take 
milk,  to  pour  only  a  part  of  it  into  the  teapot  or  bottle  at  first, 
as  some  accident  may  cause  it  to  be  spilled.  During  the  first 
few  days  a  colt  should  be  fed  each  hour,  but  it  should  not  get 
more  than  \  pint  of  milk  at  each  feeding ;  at  this  rate  it  will  get 
\  gallon  in  12  hours.  If  it  is  desired  to  give  a  colt  extra  good 
care,  it  may  be  fed  two  or  three  times  each  night  for  a  few 
nights,  but  this  would  be  superfluous  after  a  few  nights,  because 
the  colt  will  then  be  able  to  consume  enough  milk  during  the 
day  to  carry  it  through  the  night. 

If  scours  should  occur,  a  dose  of  2  ounces  of  castor  oil  should 
be  given  and  the  milk  discontinued  for  a  couple  of  feeds,  the 
sugar  and  lime  water  being  given  as  before  but  plain  warm 
water  being  substituted  for  the  milk.  As  a  foal  grows  older, 
the  quantity  of  milk  may  be  increased  and  the  number  of  feeds 
decreased,  until  at  the  end  of  a  month,  if  it  has  done  nicely, 
it  may  be  fed  only  four  or  five  times  a  day  and  the  milk  sugar 
and  lime  water  omitted.  By  this  time  it  can  be  taught  to 
drink  out  of  a  pail  and  the  feed  gradually  increased,  although 
great  care  must  be  exercised  that  too  much  milk  is  not  given 
to  the  colt,  because  this  will  likely  cause  scours.  Ordinarily, 
3  gallons  per  day  of  whole  milk  will  be  enough.  When  a  colt 
is  6  weeks  old  it  should  be  encouraged  to  take  a  little  grain  in 
the  form  of  a  gruel  added  to  the  milk;  crushed  oats  or  oatmeal 
is  best  for  this  purpose.  It  is  not  a  good  plan,  however,  to  give 
the  feed  in  this  way  very  long,  as  the  foal  will  soon  learn  to  eat 
it  dry,  which  is  more  desirable.  By  the  time  a  foal  is  3  months 
old  it  should  be  eating  plenty  of  grain  and  grass,  the  same  as  a 
foal  that  has  been  raised  by  its  dam,  and  there  should  be  no 
unusual  difficulty  in  caring  for  it  after  this  time.  An  orphan 
foal  usually  likes  to  be  coddled  and  petted,  and  soon  learns  to 
come  at  feeding  time. 

17.  Care  and  Feeding  of  Colts  From  Weaning  Time  to 
Maturity. — From  the  time  colts  are  weaned  until  they  are 
matured  they  should  have  more  protein  and  mineral  matter 
in  their  rations  than  is  necessary  for  mature  horses.  During 
this  period  of  growth  they  are  building  up  a  framework  of 


14 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


39 


bones  and  muscles,  for  which  a  plentiful  supply  of  the  mate- 
rials mentioned  is  necessary.  Grass,  good  alfalfa  hay,  and  good 
corn  silage  fed  with  a  little  bran  and  oats  are  the  most  desir- 
able feeds.  Next  to  these  feeds  in  desirability  are  clover  hay, 
cowpea  hay,  old-process  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal,  and  the 
succulent  roots  that  are  used  for  feeding  purposes.  Of  the 
latter,  carrots  are  best,  but  if  they  cannot  be  had  mangels  will 
be  found  satisfactory.  A  limited  quantity  of  corn  may  be 
used,  but  it  should  not  be  the  only  grain  fed.  If  timothy 
or  prairie  hay  is  used,  it  should  be  supplemented  with  oats, 

bran,   and   linseed   or 
cottonseed  meal. 

During  the  first  win- 
ter from  two  to  three 
colts,  not  more,  may 
be  fed  together  in  a 
box  stall,  if  the  colts 
are  selected  according 
to  their  temperaments. 
When  more  than  this 
number  are  fed  to- 
gether, the  big  and 
strong  ones  will  likely 
take  advantage  of  the 
weaker  ones  and  force 
Fig.  2  them  away  from  the 

feed  trough.  As  long  as  grass  remains  they  should  be  turned 
out  each  day  on  a  good  pasture.  For  winter  feeding,  a  rye 
field  will  prove  useful  in  furnishing  a  little  succulent  feed. 

They  should  receive  grain  twice  daily  during  the  winter  and 
about  all  the  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  they  will  eat,  which  should 
bring  them  out  in  the  spring  in  good  condition.  In  the  spring 
when  they  are  turned  on  grass  the  grain  should  be  continued 
for  2  or  3  weeks,  the  quantity  being  gradually  reduced.  A  few 
pounds  of  grain  fed  once  daily  during  the  entire  summer  will 
help  to  promote  a  good  growth  and  increase  size.  At  no  time 
should  a  colt  be  allowed  to  lose  the  natural  flesh  lying  along 
its  back  and  with  which  it  was  born,  as  it  will  be  practically 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  15 

impossible  for  it  to  regain  its  original  form  even  though  the 
flesh  is  put  back  again  by  liberal  feeding. 

18.  Stallion  and  filly  colts  should  not  be  allowed  to 
run  together  after  they  are  yearlings.  On  breeding  farms 
where  stallions  are  raised  the  young  males  are  usually 
divided  into  groups  of  not  more  than  five  or  six  animals 
at  the  end  of  the  second  summer;  it  is  best  to  have  only 
two  or  three  animals  in  one  group.  On  farms  where  the 
male  colts  are  castrated  they  can  be  turned  in  with  the 
fillies  as  soon  as  the  operation  is  performed.  Young 
horses  will  spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  open,  if  given 
an  opportunity,  and  this  is  the  best  thing  for  them. 

The  owner  should  constantly  be  on  the  lookout  for  lice 
on  colts,  and  their  feet  should  have  attention  and  be 
kept  pared  down  level  so  as  not  to  break  up  and  cause 
crooked  limbs.  A  young  colt  is  very  pliable,  and  if  it 
naturally  possesses  slight  deformities  in  feet  or  limbs, 
these  can  often  be  materially  improved  by  proper  care 
of  the  feet. 

When  the  toes  naturally  point  out,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2  (a),  the  feet  should  be  leveled  up,  and  the  toes 
trimmed  on  the  outer  forward  edge,  as  shown  in  (6). 
If  the  toes  turn  in,  as  shown  in  (c),  the  bottom  should  be 
leveled  and  the  toes  trimmed  on  the  inner  forward  edge, 
as  shown  in  (d).  It  is  more  difficult  to  improve  the 
hind  than  the  front  feet.  In  Fig.  3  is  illustrated  a 
patented  tool  for  keeping  the  toes  short;  a  is  the  handle; 
b,  the  handhold;  c,  the  hammer;  d,  the  head;  and  e,  the 
chisel.  The  chisel  is  placed  against  the  hoof  and,  by 
means  of  the  handle,  the  hammer  is  driven  down  against 
the  head  with  one  hand  while  the  other  hand  grasps 
the  handhold.  A  criticism  of  this  tool  is  that  its  use 
does  not  require  the  colt  to  pick  up  its  feet,  which  it 
should  be  taught  to  do;  another  criticism  is  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  tell  how  short  to  trim  a  hoof  without  first  looking 
at  the  bottom.  Fig.  4  shows  a  useful  pair  of  hoof  nippers, 
the  advantage  of  which  is  that  the  operator  is  able  to  see 


16  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

just  where  he  is  cutting.     A  rasp  should  be  used  to  smooth  up 

the  edges. 

19.  Castration  of 
Colts.  —  Colts  should 
be  castrated  when 
they  are  about  1  year 
old.  As  a  rule,  spring 
FlG-  4  colts  are  castrated  be- 

fore fly  time  in  the  spring,  and  fall  colts  late  in  the  fall, 
after  fly  time.  A  competent  veterinarian  should  be  employed 
and  his  instructions  regarding  the  care  of  the  colt  should  be 
followed. 

HORSES  FOR  SHOW  AND  MARKET 

20.  Fitting  of  Horses  for  Show. — The  most  important 
requisites  for  show  horses  are  that  they  be  sound  and  have 
plenty  of  flesh  to  round  out  and  smooth  up  the  body.  To  meet 
the  first  of  these  requirements,  it  is  necessary  that  good,  sound 
animals  be  selected.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  good  show 
horse  out  of  an  unsound  animal,  no  matter  how  much  flesh  and 
finish  is  put  on.  To  meet  the  second  requirement,  plenty  of 
time  should  be  allowed  for  getting  the  animals  into  condition. 
Allowing  ample  time  is  much  better  than  crowding  the  animals 
to  their  full  capacity,  unless  the  feeder  is  experienced  in  feeding 
show  horses.  The  time  required  for  putting  flesh  and  finish 
on  horses  for  show  purposes  ordinarily  is  from  60  days  to  6  or 
8  months,  depending  on  the  age  of  the  animals  and  their  con- 
dition at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period.  An  aged  horse 
will  fleshen  more  rapidly  than  a  young  one,  because  the  latter 
uses  a  part  of  his  feed  for  growth. 

In  fitting  horses  for  show,  they  should  be  put  on  full  feed 
gradually;  usually,  from  20  to  40  days  is  required,  depending  on 
whether  or  not  they  are  accustomed  to  receiving  grain.  A  safe 
rule  to  follow  for  the  first  30  days  is  to  feed  not  more  than 
1  pound  of  grain  per  100  pounds  of  five  weight,  and  to  give  all 
the  hay  the  horses  will  eat.  As  the  feeding  period  advances, 
more  grain  can  be  fed  and,  consequently,  less  hay  will  be  con- 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  17 

sumed.  The  hay  fed  should  be  of  good  quality,  free  from  dust 
or  mold,  and  should  be  given  in  two  equal  feeds,  care  being 
exercised  to  see  that  none  of  the  horses  are  overfed.  Horses 
are  gluttonous  animals  and,  after  they  have  had  all  the  feed 
they  require,  will  continue  to  nibble  at  and  spoil  and  waste 
what  is  left.  For  this  reason  no  more  feed  than  they  will 
readily  clean  up  should  be  fed.  If  some  should  be  left  at  any 
time  it  should  be  removed  before  the  next  feeding  and  the  next 
ration  reduced  to  a  quantity  that  they  will  readily  consume.  It 
is  possible  to  ascertain  when  horses  are  getting  more  or  less  feed 
than  they  require  by  observing  the  avidity  with  which  they  eat. 

21.  A  mixed  grain  ration  of  corn  and  oats,  when  fed  with 
clover  hay,  has  been  found  by  experiments  conducted  by  the 
Illinois  Experiment  Station  to  be  more  efficient  for  producing 
large  gains  than  a  single  grain  ration  of  corn.  In  one  of  these 
experiments  a  ration  of  corn,  oats,  and  clover  hay  fed  to  one 
lot  of  horses  was  more  expensive  than  one  of  corn  and  clover 
hay,  but  the  gains  were  enough  more  to  make  the  former 
ration  more  economical  than  the  latter.  A  ration  of  corn  and 
oats  fed  with  clover  hay  produced  58  per  cent,  more  gain  than 
a  ration  of  the  same  grains  fed  with  timothy  hay.  A  ration 
of  corn,  oats,  and  timothy  hay  was  not  satisfactory  for  pro- 
ducing finish,  but  was  materially  improved  by  the  addition  of 
linseed  meal.  These  tests  also  indicated  that  there  was  but 
little  difference  in  the  efficiency  of  rations  consisting  of  corn 
and  oats  fed  in  conjunction  with  clover  hay  when  the  grain, 
part  of  the  ration  consisted  of  1  part  of  oats  and  3  parts  of  corn 
and  when  the  corn  and  oats  were  fed  in  equal  quantities,  by 
weight,  although  the  ration  containing  1  part  of  oats  and 
3  parts  of  corn  proved  more  economical.  The  same  tests 
indicated  that,  for  producing  gains,  a  ration  of  corn  and  bran 
in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  bran  and  4  parts  of  corn,  by  weight, 
and  supplemented  by  clover  hay,  was  superior  to  an  all-corn 
ration.  The  tests  also  indicated  that  there  is  a  possibility  of 
feeding  too  much  bran  for  the  best  results  when  clover  hay  is 
fed  as  the  roughage  part  of  the  ration ;  this  is  likely  to  produce 
an  overlaxative  condition.     In  these  experiments  the  narrower 


18  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

the  nutritive  ratio  the  larger  were  the  gains;  the  best  results 
were  obtained  by  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  to  8. 

About  6  weeks  or  2  months  before  the  show,  old-process 
linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  should  be  added  to  the  ration  to  put 
the  hair  of  the  animals  in  good  condition ;  about  \  pound  should 
be  fed  daily  at  the  beginning,  and  the  quantity  gradually 
increased  until  at  the  close  of  the  feeding  period  each  horse  is 
receiving  3  pounds  daily.  Sorghum  molasses  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  if  the  former  is  more 
economical.  The  molasses  should  be  fed  at  the  rate  of  1  pint 
per  day  for  each  horse. 

It  is  not  good  policy  to  feed  breeding  animals  a  heavy  grain 
ration,  crowding  them  to  the  limit,  as  may  be  done  with  market 
horses  that  are  soon  to  be  disposed  of.  As  the  time  approaches 
for  putting  on  the  finishing  flesh,  if  it  is  noticed  that  some  of 
the  animals  are  putting  their  flesh  on  in  rolls,  the  corn  part  of 
the  ration  should  be  replaced  with  oats  and  one  feed  per  day 
of  clover  hay  replaced  with  a  feed  of  timothy  or  prairie  hay;  if 
a  little  succulent  feed,  such  as  steamed  barley  and  roots,  is 
added,  it  will  help  to  overcome  the  tendency  to  put  on  the 
flesh  in  rolls. 

22.  Show  horses  should  be  exercised  daily  and  put  through 
the  paces  they  are  expected  to  show  in  the  ring.  Draft  horses 
should  be  taught  to  stand  in  the  manner  expected  of  them  in 
the  show  ring,  and  to  move  in  a  spirited  way  when  led  by  an 
attendant.  When  brought  back  to  the  place  of  starting  they 
should  be  stood  up  just  as  if  they  were  being  looked  over  by  a 
judge,  the  attendant  always  selecting  for  this  purpose  a  spot 
where  the  front  feet  will  be  a  little  higher  than  the  hind  feet. 
Light  horses  should  have  practice  in  displaying  action  and  in 
turning  each  way,  and  should  always  be  kept  on  the  alert  so 
that  they  will  never  appear  sluggish.  The  training  of  show 
horses  should  be  kept  up  daily,  but  the  horses  should  not  be 
worked  until  they  get  tired. 

It  is  advisable  to  water  the  horses  out  of  a  pail  for  several 
days  before  leaving  home,  in  order  that  they  may  become 
accustomed  to  it.     If  possible,  feed  should  be  taken  along,  so 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  19 

that  there  will  be  no  change  from  what  the  horses  have  been 
accustomed  to.  It  is  best  to  arrive  at  the  show  grounds  in 
plenty  of  time  to  accustom  the  horses  to  the  grounds  and  to 
give  them  a  little  time  to  fill  up  after  the  trip  and  to  get 
acquainted  with  the  arena  in  which  they  are  to  be  shown. 

It  usually  takes  at  least  one  resetting  of  the  shoes  to  put  the 
feet  in  the  best  of  shape;  consequently,  the  first  set  of  shoes 
should  be  put  on  from  4  to  6  weeks  before  the  show,  and  then 
the  shoes  should  be  reset  3  or  4  days  before  the  show,  in  order 
that  the  horses  may  become  accustomed  to  the  new  shoes  and 
learn  to  handle  their  feet  gracefully. 

On  the  day  of  the  show,  it  is  best  to  water  and  feed  the  horses 
early  enough  that  they  will  not  go  into  the  show  ring  with  full 
stomachs.  Draft  horses  should  be  decorated  in  a  tasty  manner 
by  putting  some  ribbons  or  yarn  in  the  mane  and  a  few  arti- 
ficial flowers  in  the  tail,  which  should  be  done  up  neatly  and 
tied  with  ribbon.  Light  horses  should  not  have  decorations 
in  their  manes  or  tails,  but  the  hair  should  be  clean  and  brushed 
out  straight;  a  little  coal  oil  will  remove  the  dust  and  give  the 
hair  a  gloss.  Any  stable  stains  on  the  legs  of  an  animal  of 
either  class  should  be  washed  out  and  the  hair  rubbed  dry. 
The  hoofs  should  be  cleaned  and  polished  by  rubbing  them 
down  with  emery  paper  and  then  applying  neat's  foot  oil  that 
has  been  colored  with  lampblack.  A  little  aluminum  paint 
placed  on  the  edge  of  the  shoes  will  help  to  make  the  latter 
attractive.     A  neat,  plain  bridle  should  be  used. 

23.     Handling    of    Horses    in    the    Show   Ring. — For   the 

handling  of  horses  in  the  show  ring,  attendants  with  whom  the 
animals  are  familiar  and  who  are  capable  of  making  them  dis- 
play their  merits  and  training  should  be  chosen.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  a  slightly  inferior  animal  is  awarded  the  premium 
solely  because  of  superior  handling.  The  attendants  will  be 
expected  to  put  the  horses  through  such  paces  as  the  judge 
may  require.  When  the  premiums  arc  awarded,  the  owners 
of  each  animal  should  accept  victory  or  defeat  as  gentlemen, 
and  strive  afterwards  to  improve  such  inferiorities  of  their 
animals  as  were  disclosed  by  the  competition. 

243—39 


20  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

24.  Fitting  of  Horses  for  Market. — The  feeding  of  horses 
for  market  is  similar  to  the  feeding  of  horses  for  show,  about  the 
same  kind  and  quantity  of  feed  being  fed  and  the  same  time 
required  for  putting  on  flesh.  However,  in  order  to  seeure 
the  best  results  in  the  feeding  of  horses  for  market,  if  it  is 
largely  for  the  purpose  of  putting  on  flesh,  the  animals  should 
not  be  exercised  more  than  is  necessary  for  good  health ;  in  fact, 
it  is  the  common  practice  of  feeders  of  market  horses  not  to 
give  them  any  exercise  at  all.  Experiments  conducted  by  the 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in  fleshing  horses  for 
market,  showed  that  exercise  has  a  retarding  effect  on  the  taking 
on  of  flesh.  One  lot  of  horses  that  received  no  exercise  made 
24  per  cent,  more  gain  in  84  days  than  those  having  a  daily 
walk  of  2|  miles.  This  same  test  indicated  that  although  box 
stalls  are  safer  than  single  stalls  for  stabling,  they  are  more 
expensive  and,  so  far  as  they  affect  the  taking  on  of  flesh,  have 
no  advantage  over  single  stalls;  in  fact,  the  horses  stabled  in 
single  stalls  for  84  days  made  gains  of  16  pounds,  or  84  per  cent, 
over  those  kept  in  box  stalls. 

For  the  feeding  of  horses  for  market,  there  is  probably  nothing 
more  economical  than  corn,  oats,  bran,  and  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay;  silage  is  an  economical  feed  in  some  localities.  A  grain 
ration  of  2  parts  of  corn  and  1  part  of  oats,  by  weight,  will  prove 
satisfactory.  Another  good  ration  may  be  made  by  mixing 
corn  and  oats  in  equal  parts,  by  weight,  and  to  this  adding 
£  part  of  bran.  The  grain  is  usually  fed  three  times  daily, 
although  some  horsemen  prefer  to  feed  five  times  daily.  When 
the  feeding  is  done  five  times  a  day,  less  is  given  at  one  time, 
of  course,  and  often  the  grain  is  not  mixed,  the  corn  being  fed 
in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  at  night,  and  the  oats  and  bran 
at  9  o'clock  in  the  forenoon  and  at  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 
Sometimes  a  soft  feed  such  as  steamed  barley,  bran  mash,  roots, 
or  corn  silage  is  fed  at  9  o'clock  and  at  3  o'clock  instead  of  the 
oats  and  bran.  When  bran  is  cheaper  per  pound  than  oats, 
some  of  the  former  may  be  substituted  for  oats  in  the  ration. 
When  fed  in  conjunction  with  clover  hay,  it  is  best  to  feed 
bran  dry,  for  when  it  is  fed  as  a  mash  it  has  a  very  laxative 
effect. 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  21 

When  horses  are  to  be  fed  from  60  bo  L20  days  to  prepare 
them  for  market,  good  results  will  be  obtained  by  substituting 
for  the  bran  2  or  3  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  per  day  per  horse. 

25.  Marketing  of  Horses.— The  two  common  methods  of 
marketing  horses  are  public  auction  and  private  sale.  Public 
auction  is  the  plan  generally  adopted  by  breeders  who  have  a 
large  number  of  animals  to  dispose  of,  as  it  eliminates  the 
trouble  of  entertaining  buyers  every  few  days  that  is  experi- 
enced when  the  animals  are  sold  at  private  sale.  However, 
public  auctions  place  the  owner  at  the  mercy  of  the  public 
as  far  as  prices  are  concerned. 

The  cost  of  selling  horses  at  public  auction  is  usually  from 
$10  to  $50  a  head,  depending  on  the  number  of  animals  in  the 
sale,  the  number  of  auctioneers  employed,  the  extent  of  adver- 
tising, and  the  cost  of  cataloging.  It  is  usually  advisable  to 
secure  the  best  auctioneers  that  can  be  obtained,  because  an 
inefficient  auctioneer  may  allow  the  sale  to  go  to  pieces  and  more 
money  will  be  lost,  even  on  a  few  animals,  than  would  be 
expended  in  employing  a  good  auctioneer.  The  character  of 
a  sale  is  often  judged  by  the  prominence  and  number  of  the 
auctioneers  employed,  the  number  of  animals  cataloged,  and 
the  extent  of  the  advertising,  although  this  should  not  be  the 

case. 

The  safest  method  of  selling  horses  is  by  private  sale.  If 
this  method  is  followed,  liberal  advertising  should  be  done  to 
let  the  public  know  what  is  being  offered,  but  unwarranted 
claims  should  not  be  made  for  animals  if  a  breeder  expects  to 
stay  in  the  breeding  business  and  wishes  to  make  a  reputation. 
[f  advertising  is  done  in  agricultural  publications  or  in  those 
devoted  to  horses,  it  is  likely  that  a  number  of  sales  will  be 
made  by  correspondence.  At  least,  many  inquiries  will  be 
received  and  these  will  have  to  be  answered  by  mail.  For  this 
reason,  the  horseman  that  is  attempting  to  sell  animals  at 
private  sale  should  pay  strict  attention  to  his  a  .rrespondence 
and  attempt  to  make  his  letters  businesslike  and  convincing. 
It  is  advisable  to  have  mimeographed  or  printed  circulars  con- 
taining a  description  and  photograph  of  each  animal  offered 


22  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

for  sale,  so  that  these  can  be  enclosed  with  replies  to  prospective 
customers.  The  descriptions  should  be  as  accurate  as  possible 
and  not  too  extended.  It  is  better  to  underrate  animals  a 
little  than  to  overrate  them,  especially  if  the  sale  is  to  be  made 
through  correspondence. 

26.  The  best  mediums  for  the  advertisement  of  market 
horses  are  public  shows,  agricultural  and  livestock  journals, 
and  local  newspapers.  Besides  these  mediums,  it  is  possible 
to  advertise  horses  by  using  posters,  signs,  catalogs,  and  an 
appropriate  letterhead.  The  value  of  a  newspaper  or  live- 
stock journal  for  the  advertising  of  horses  should  be  rated 
according  to  the  number  of  people  it  reaches  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  particular  breed  of  horses  advertised  and  the  repu- 
tation of  the  paper  for  reliability.  The  best  agricultural 
journals  have  field  men  who  solicit  livestock  advertising.  If 
a  breeder  expects  only  local  buyers,  there  is  but  little  use  to 
advertise  in  a  journal  that  has  a  wide  circulation;  on  the  other 
hand,  if  he  thinks  people  in  other  states  would  be  interested 
in  his  offering,  then  he  should  select  a  medium  that  will  reach 
the  people  he  hopes  to  interest. 

A  neat  and  attractive  letterhead  describing  the  kind  of 
horses  bred,  and  which  shows  a  small  picture  of  the  leading 
stallion  of  the  stud  and  the  name  of  the  farm  and  proprietor, 
helps  to  give  publicity.  A  sale  catalog  should  be  gotten  up  in 
a  neat,  attractive  way,  and  should  contain  pedigrees  of  the 
horses  to  be  sold  and  such  other  information  as  purchasers 
would  wish  to  know.  It  should  also  state  the  show-ring 
winnings  of  not  only  the  horses  to  be  sold,  but  any  winnings  or 
records  that  their  sires  and  dams  or  grandsires  and  granddams 
have  made.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  matter  of 
accuracy,  and  if  the  catalog  is  to  be  illustrated  with  engravings 
they  should  be  made  from  photographs  of  the  animals  rather 
than  from  crude  drawings.  On  the  inside  of  the  cover  page 
should  be  given  the  location  of  the  farm  and  the  nearest 
railroad  station  and  the  schedule  of  the  train  service  on  all  rail- 
roads entering  and  leaving.  The  leading  hotels  and  their  rates 
should  also  be  mentioned  unless  free  entertainment  is  to  be 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  23 

provided.  On  the  first  printed  page  should  be  given  the  terms 
of  the  sale  and  the  guarantee  that  goes  with  each  animal. 
Every  effort  should  be  put  forth  to  make  the  catalog  so  neat 
and  attractive  that  it  will  be  preserved  and  create  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  recipients  to  attend  the  sale.  The  animals 
should  be  cataloged  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  sold; 
the  more  valuable  ones  should  be  sold  first. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  name  of  the  farm  displayed  in 
a  conspicuous  place.  It  may  be  found  desirable,  also,  to  have 
a  bulletin  board  located  where  it  can  be  seen  by  the  public 
and  on  which  announcement  can  be  made  that  certain  stock 
is  for  sale. 

27.  Guaranteeing  of  Breeding  Horses. — All  horses  that 
are  sold  as  breeding  animals  should  be  guaranteed  to  be  such, 
and  should  be  taken  back  by  the  seller  in  case  they  do  not 
prove  to  be  breeders.  However,  it  should  be  stipulated  that 
they  must  receive  proper  care  and  feeding,  and  must  be  returned 
in  good  condition,  if  the  guarantee  is  to  be  operative.  An 
animal  may  be  a  breeding  animal  at  the  time  of  sale,  but 
not  be  one  3  months  later,  due  to  improper  care  and  feeding. 
Under  such  conditions  the  seller  should  not  be  held  responsible. 

A  breeding  animal  is  usually  considered  to  be  one  that  is 
capable  of  producing  offspring.  If  a  mare  is  sold  under  a 
guarantee,  she  may  be  considered  to  be  a  proved  breeder  either 
when  she  shows  unmistakable  evidence  of  being  in  foal  or  when 
she  has  a  foal  at  her  side,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  guar- 
antee. Many  breeders  do  not  give  guarantees  with  fillies  that 
have  never  been  pregnant.  Some  guarantees  merely  permit 
the  purchaser  of  a  mare,  if  she  does  not  prove  to  be  in  foal,  to 
return  her  for  a  second  stud  service.  A  fair  and  equitable 
agreement  is  to  allow  the  purchaser  of  a  mare  of  breeding  age 
9  months  in  which  to  make  a  test  of  her  breeding  qualities,  and 
if  it  is  found  impossible  to  get  her  in  foal  in  that  time  the  pur- 
chaser is  to  notify  the  seller,  who  shall  have  a  like  time  for  try- 
ing, or,  at  his  discretion,  the  right  to  return  the  purchase  price. 
If  the  seller  also  fails  to  get  the  mare  in  foal  in  9  months  he 
should  substitute  another  animal  equally  as  good  or  refund  the 


24  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

purchase  price.  If  the  seller  succeeds  in  getting  the  mare  in 
foal,  the  purchaser  should  bear  the  expense  of  the  transporta- 
tion both  ways.  If,  however,  the  seller  does  not  succeed  in 
getting  the  mare  in  foal,  the  expense  of  the  transaction  should 
be  equally  shared  with  the  purchaser. 

Stallions  are  usually  guaranteed  to  get  in  foal  from  50  to 
60  per  cent,  of  all  breeding  mares  that  they  cover.  Such  a 
guarantee  is  almost  valueless,  however,  because  a  purchaser 
would  have  a  difficult  task  to  establish  that  all  the  mares  cov- 
ered were  breeding  mares  or  that  they  were  returned  to  the 
stallion  at  the  proper  time.  A  better  way  of  testing  the  breed- 
ing qualities  of  a  stallion  is  to  examine  his  seminal  fluid  with  a 
compound  microscope  in  the  manner  already  described.  If 
living  spermatozoa  are  present  there  can  be  no  question  as  to 
the  animal  being  a  breeder,  provided  there  is  nothing  to  pre- 
vent him  from  serving  mares. 

28.  Shipping  of  Horses. — "When  horses  are  to-be  shipped 
by  rail  they  can  be  sent  either  by  express  or  freight .  If  shipped 
by  express  in  carload  lots,  they  are  usually  loaded  into  a  spe- 
cial type  of  car,  known  as  the  Anns  palace  express  car,  which  is 
provided  with  individual  stalls,  and  usually  has  room  for 
twenty-seven  horses.  Shipment  of  horses  by  express  is  prefer- 
able to  shipment  by  freight,  because  they  reach  their  destina- 
tion sooner;  the  express  rates,  however,  are  higher  than  the 
freight  rates.  Horses  shipped  in  carload  lots  by  express  should 
be  accompanied  by  an  attendant  to  see  that  the  car  is  properly 
ventilated  and  that  the  horses  are  fed  and  watered.  If  horses 
are  to  be  shipped  in  carload  lots  by  freight,  it  is  usually  the 
practice  to  use  either  an  Arms  palace  stock  car — a  car  divided 
into  three  compartments,  with  open,  slatted  sides — or  a  com- 
mon stock  car.  In  the  case  of  highly  fitted  horses  that  are 
purchased  in  carload  lots  and  shipped  to  distributing  points, 
an  Arms  palace  stock  car  is  best,  because  the  horses  are  not  so 
likely  to  become  bruised  as  in  a  common  stock  car.  The  car 
should  be  well  bedded  with  straw,  or,  better,  with  moist  sand. 
All  hind  shoes,  and  all  front  shoes  that  have  sharpened  calks, 
should  be  removed. 


§  39  HORSE  MANA(  5  I'M  ENT  25 

In  shipping  colts,  each  animal  ran  be  crated  singly,  if  desired  ; 
mature  horses  cannot  be  shipped  in  crates.  Because  of  the 
expense  incurred  by  an  express  shipment,  most  single  animals 
are  shipped  by  freight. 

.  When  shipping  one  or  two  horses  alone  in  a  ear,  those  who 
have  had  experience  consider  ii  besl  to  turn  them  loose  and 
give  them  the  whole  run  of  the  car,  because  they  are  not 
so  likely  to  be  thrown  off  their  feet  as  when  tied  and  therefore 
are  safer.  When  it  is  necessary  to  tie  them,  they  should  be 
stood  crosswise  of  the  car  rather  than  lengthwise,  as  is  fre- 
quently done.  If  it  is  necessary  to  stand  them  lengthwise  of 
the  car  they  should  be  placed  with  their  buttocks  again 
end  and  a  heavy  timber  placed  across  the  ear  in  front  of  their 
breasts.  The  end  of  the  car  should  first  be  heavily  padded 
with  burlap  nailed  over  straw  or  excelsior,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  hocks  from  being  bruised  and  the  tails  being  rubbed  out; 
the  piece  in  front  of  the  breast  should  be  padded  in  a  like  man- 
ner and  should  not  be  lighter  than  4  inches  by  4  inches,  because 
heavy  weight  will  be  thrown  against  it. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 


TRAINING    OF   HORSES 

29.  Early  Training  of  Colts. — The  training  of  a  colt  should 
begin  when  it  is  but  a  few  months  old,  or  even  sooner.  It 
should  first  be  taught  that  man  is  its  friend  and  master.  The 
first  step  in  teaching  this  lesson  is  to  coddle  and  pet  the  colt 
while  it  is  at  the  side  of  its  dam.  After  a  colt  has  been  fondled 
a  few  times  it  will  have  lost  much  of  its  fear,  and  no  difficulty 
should  be  encountered  in  passing  the  hand  down  over  its  legs. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  slip  a  small  halter  on  a  colt  and  let  him  wear 
it  continuously;  this  will  be  an  aid  in  handling  the  colt  and  will 
familiarize  it  with  having  something  on  its  head.  It  requires 
but  little  time  to  give  a  colt  a  few  strokes  with  a  brush  every 
time  its  dam  is  groomed,  and  this  does  much  to  familiarize  it 
with  the  attendant.     The  best  place  to  begin  brushing  it  is  on 


26 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


39 


the  back,  just  behind  the  withers;  after  a  short  time  it  will  per- 
mit being  brushed  on  the  croup,  neck,  and  legs. 


"•'-''•.It*..  ',*• 


Fig.  5 

There  is  nothing  more  effective  in  teaching  a  colt  submission 
than  to  lift  it  from  its  feet  and  lay  it  on  the  ground.  A  colt 
can  be  easily  held  in  this  position  if  its  neck  is  held  firmly  to 
the  ground  and  the  muzzle  is  held  up.  While  the  colt  is  thus 
held  down,  the  legs  and  body  should  be  stroked.  As  soon  as 
the  colt  is  permitted  to  arise  it  should  again  be  stroked  from 
head  to  foot. 

30.     If  a  colt  wears  a  halter  regularly,   it  can  easily  be 

taught    to    be    led    by 


occasionally  tying  it  to 
its  dam  when  she  is  in 
harness.  After  this  has 
been  done  a  few  times 
use  should  be  made  of 
the  device  illustrated  in 
Fig.  5.     A  small  rope  is 


Fig.  6 


doubled  and  a  knot  tied  in  it  about  3^  feet  from  the  loop  end. 
The  loop  is  dropped  around  the  colt's  buttocks  below  the  tail, 
the  knot  in  the  loop  coming  on  the  colt's  back,  and  a  strand  of 


§39 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


27 


the  rope  is  passed  forwards  on  each  side  of  the  colt's  neck. 
Both  strands  are  then  run  through  the  chin  strap  of  the  halter 
so  that  the  two  ends  extend  outwards  in  front  of  the  animal. 
If  the  ends  of  the  rope  are  pulled  lightly  pressure  is  applied 
behind  and  the  colt  will  usually  follow  the  attendant  without 
much  difficulty  being  experienced.  Young  colts  should  be 
handled  enough  to  make  them  tame  and  gentle,  which  will  save 
much  trouble  later. 

A  good  way  to  teach  a  colt  to  stand  tied  is  to  slip  a  halter  on 
it  when  it  is  in  the  stall,  and  allow  the  halter  strap  to  drag. 
The  colt  will  fre- 
quently step  on  the 
strap  and  in  doing  so 
will  apply  pressure 
at  the  top  of  its 
head  and  thus  be- 
come accustomed  to 
the  use  of  the  halter. 

Time  spent  in  giv- 
ing colts  a  prelimi- 
nary training  is  never 
wasted.     They  never 

forget  it  entirely,  even  if  they  are  not  handled  from  the  time 
they  are  weaned  until  they  are  old  enough  to  be  put  at 
work.  As  a  rule,  they  are  more  easily  trained  and  make  more 
trusty  horses  if  they  are  handled  from  time  to  time  than  if 
not  handled. 


Fig.  7 


31.  Training  of  Colts  to  the  Bit.— Before  attempting  to 
work  a  colt  it  should  first  be  trained  to  the  bit.  The  bit  rests 
on  the  bars  of  a  horse's  mouth,  and  to  a  slight  degree  on  the 
lips.  At  first  these  parts  are  tender  and  sensitive  and  should 
not  be  injured  by  rough  handling.  A  good  way  to  harden  the 
bars  and  lips  and  accustom  a  colt  to  wearing  a  bit  is  to  put  a 
bridle  with  a  thick  bit  on  the  colt  and  to  let  him  wear  it  for  an 
hour  or  two  a  day  for  a  few  days  or  a  week.  A  good  form  of 
bit  to  use  for  this  purpose  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  The  bar  of 
this  bit  is  broad  and  rigid  and  hence  is  not  so  likely  to  injure 


28 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


39 


the  mouth  as  a  thinner,  more  flexible  bit.  Some  horsemen 
prefer  the  form  of  bit  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  claim  for  this  bit  is 
that  the  links  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  bit  will  cause  a  colt 
to  champ  it  and  the  bars  of  the  mouth  thus  become  hardened. 
The  training  to  the  wearing  of  a  bridle  should  be  followed 
by  the  training  to  the  wearing  of  a  device  known  as  a  bitting 
harness,  one  form  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  8.     This  con- 


Fig.  8 

sists  of  a  bridle  with  a  suitable  bit,  a  surcingle  that  is  buckled 
around  the  body,  a  side  rein  and  a  check  rein  on  each  side,  a 
back  strap,  and  a  crupper.  The  reins  are  adjustable  as  to 
length  at  the  surcingle.  At  first  these  should  be  adjusted 
loosely  and  then  gradually  tightened  up  as  the  colt  becomes 
accustomed  to  the  bit.  It  is  advisable  to  give  a  colt  that  is 
wearing  such  harness  the  run  of  a  lot  or  paddock.  No  rule 
can  be  given  as  to  the  length  of  time  to  use  bitting  harness. 


§39       -  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  29 

This  must  be  learned  by  i  xperience,  for  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  colts,  some  requiring  the  harness  much  longer  than 
others.  As  a  rule,  it  should  be  used  for  2  weeks  or  more 
before  an  attempt  is  made  to  put  the  colt  at  work.  Eves 
the  colt  has  been  started  at  work,  the  bitting  harness  can  some- 
times be  used  to  advantage.  If  a  bitting  harness  is  not  at 
hand,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  improvise  one. 

After  a  colt  has  worn  a  bitting  harness  for  about  2  weeks 
or  thereabouts,  the  side  reins  should  be  removed  and  long  lines 
substituted,  the  attendant  following  behind  the  colt  and  driv- 
ing it.  The  lines  should  be  passed  through  rings  placed  not 
too  high  on  the  surcingle;  midway  of  the  colt's  side  is  about 
right.  By  this  arrangement  a  colt  can  be  accustomed  to 
being  driven  single.  Each  command  should  be  given  clearly 
and  distinctly,  and  its  meaning  impressed  on  the  colt's  mind 
by  the  aid  of  the  reins. 

32.  Too  many  lessons  should  not  be  attempted  in  one  day, 
because  the  colt  is  likely  to  become  confused  and  consequently 
nothing  will  be  gained.  Fatigue,  either  mental  or  physical, 
retards  the  power  to  grasp  and  to  hold  new  ideas.  For  this 
reason,  the  lessons  should  be  short  and  clear-cut  rather  than 
prolonged.  While  driving  the  colt  thus  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
accustom  him  to  such  unfamiliar  sights  and  sounds  as  he  is 
likely  to  encounter  later  on,  and  which  would  likely  frighten 
him.  The  attendant  should  not  endeavor  to  frighten  the 
colt  but  rather  to  show  him  that  he  has  nothing  to  fear.  In 
adjusting  the  harness,  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  every 
part  fits  properly,  because  the  skin  of  a  colt  is  tender  and  easily 
injured.  Great  care  should  be  exercised,  also,  in  the  manipula- 
tion of  the  reins  to  avoid,  if  possible,  the  mouth  becoming  sore, 
which  will  cause  a  colt  to  become  more  or  less  erratic. 

33.  Training  of  Colts  to  Single  Hitching. — The  advisability 

of  training  a  colt  to  single  hitching  depends  on  the  class  of  the 
colt  and  the  work  it  is  to  do.  Colts  that  are  to  be  used  for 
road  or  city  work  should  be  trained  to  single  hitching,  but 
those  that  are  to  become  farm  or  draft  horses  and  work  in 
teams  may  be  trained  after  the  bitting  harness  stage  by  hitch- 


30  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

ing  them  with  old  reliable  horses.  If  a  colt  is  to  be  trained 
to  work  single  the  first  step  is  to  hitch  it  to  a  cart.  A  long 
breaking  cart  made  especially  for  this  purpose  is  desirable,  its 
special  advantage  being  that  it  is  made  heavier  than  an  ordinary 
cart  and  with  long  shafts  so  that  a  colt  could  not  strike  the 
body  of  the  cart  if  it  should  kick.  Of  course,  if  a  breaking 
cart  is  not  available  a  common  cart,  if  strong,  may  be  used. 

In  hitching  a  colt  single  for  the  first  time,  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  does  not  become  frightened  at  the  cart  and  get 
loose  before  it  is  securely  fastened  between  the  shafts.  An 
assistant  can  be  used  at  this  time  to  advantage.  Every  part 
of  the  harness  should  be  properly  adjusted  and  the  lines  kept 
within  reach.  "While  the  colt  is  being  held  by  the  bit  the 
attendant  should  carefully  run  the  cart  up  just  as  if  the  colt 
were  to  be  hitched.  It  should  then  be  taken  away  again  and 
brought  around  to  the  front  for  the  colt  to  examine  with  his 
nose;  this  will  help  to  reassure  him  that  it  is  nothing  to  fear. 
This  may  be  repeated  a  few  times,  if  it  seems  advisable.  When 
the  colt  has  finally  been  fastened  between  the  shafts,  it  should 
be  in  a  place  where  there  is  plenty  of  room,  for  the  turning 
between  shafts  is  a  new  experience  and  it  may  not  be  possible 
to  keep  him  under  control  until  this  lesson  has  been  learned. 
A  colt  should  be  started  off  slowly  at  first  by  having  the 

assistant  lead  it  and 

should    be    permitted 

to  see  what  is  going 

on   around  it.      An 

open  bridle  should  be 

used;   if   blinders   are 

necessary  they  can 

be    substituted    later 

on    when    the    colt's 

education    is    farther 

advanced.     A  colt  will 

FlG-  9  learn  faster  and  give 

less  trouble  if  kept  at  a  walk  rather  than  at  a  trot  during  the 

first  lesson  between  the  shafts.     It  will  take  some  time  for  it 

to  learn  to  turn,  but  patience  and  perseverance  will  win. 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  31 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  a  kicking  strap  for  the  first  few  times 
a  colt  is  hitched  single,  in  order  to  prevent  it  from  forming 
the  habit  of  kicking.  A  kicking  strap  is  a  strap  that  can  be 
passed  over  the  croup  of  a  horse  and  attached  to  each  shaft 
so  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  animal  to  raise  its  hindquar- 
ters and  hence  to  kick.  Fig.  9  shows  a  form  of  kicking  strap 
that  is  convenient.  This  device  is  thrown  over  the  colt  after 
the  backstrap  and  crupper  of  the  harness  have  been  removed, 
the  snap  being  fastened  to  the  back  pad,  and  the  lower 
straps  buckled  around  the  shafts.  Such  straps  can  be 
purchased  from  harness  dealers,  or  they  can  be  improvised. 

34.  Training  of  Colts  to  Double  Hitching. — If  it  is  desired 
to  train  a  horse  to  double  hitching,  the  best  plan  is  to  hitch 
it  to  a  light  load  with  a  steady,  reliable  horse  that  is  not  easily 
frightened  and  which  is  accustomed  to  being  hitched  with 
colts.  The  horse  should  be  a  good  puller  and  should  be  hitched 
so  that  he  will  pull  most  of  the  load  at  first.  It  is  a  good  plan, 
during  the  first  few  lessons,  to  put  a  halter  on  the  colt  and  tie 
the  strap  to  the  hame  of  the  older  horse;  this  will  prevent  a 
runaway,  should  the  colt  become  frightened.  Draft  colts  are 
less  spirited  than  light  colts  and  many  of  them  will  work 
almost  like  an  experienced  horse  from  the  start. 

35.  Training  of   Colts  to  Submit  to  Being   Mounted. — If 

colts  are  handled  from  the  time  they  are  very  young  until  old 
enough  to  be  ridden,  little  difficulty  should  be  experienced 
in  training  them  to  submit  to  being  mounted.  After  a  colt 
has  been  wearing  bitting  harness  for  some  time,  the  attend- 
ant should  slip  quietly  onto  its  back  without  a  saddle,  sit 
quietly  for  a  few  moments,  and  then  urge  the  colt  to  walk.  If 
the  colt  is  timid  and  nervous,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  a  dummy 
on  it  until  the  colt  becomes  accustomed  to  having  an  object 
on  its  back;  the  dummy  should  be  strapped  on  securely, 
because  it  would  have  a  bad  effect  on  the  colt  if  it  should 
attempt  to  unseat  the  object  and  be  successful. 

Some  horsemen  prefer  to  use  a  large  doublc-cinch  horn 
.saddle  when  a  colt  is  mounted  for  the  first  time.  A  saddle 
may  make  the  rider's  seat  more  secure  than  without  it,  but 


32  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

the  saddle  is  likely  to  cause  the  colt  to  pitch  and  buck,  espe- 
cially if  the  hind  cinch  is  drawn  up  .tightly. 

36.  Training  of  Vicious  Horses.— The  secret  of  success  in 
training  or  in  correcting  vicious  horses  is  to  get  their  attention 
and  respect.  The  best  way  to  accomplish  this  will  depend 
somewhat  on  the  nature  of  the  vice.  For  kickers  and  run- 
aways, there  is  nothing  better  than  a  trip  line  with  which  to 
throw  them  down.  Taking  a  horse's  legs  from  under  him 
and  tumbling  him  on  the  ground  humiliates  him  and  causes 
him  to  respect  his  master  more  than  almost  anything  else  that 
can  be  done.  The  trip  line  must  be  adjusted  so  that  it  can 
be  used  when  an  offense  is  committed.  For  cowing  a  man- 
eating  horse,  a  revolver  loaded  with  blank  cartridges  to  fire 
into  the  animal's  face  is  usually  effective. 

37.  Training  of  Balky  Horses. — Most  balky  horses  are 
made  so  by  incompetent  drivers  and  by  ill-fitting  harness. 
Kindness,  patience,  and  the  diverting  of  attention  are  the 
most  successful  remedies.  The  driver  should  endeavor  to 
obtain  the  confidence  of  the  horse  by  treating  it  kindly  and 
never  making  unreasonable  demands  on  it. 

38.  Training  of  Halter-Pulling  Horses. — A  good  method 
for  reforming  a  halter-pulling  horse— one  that  pulls  back  on 
the  halter  when  tied — is  to  use  a  device  similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  5.  A  strong  rope  should  be  used  and  the  ends  secured 
to  some  substantial  object.  When  the  device  is  in  place  and 
the  ends  tied  the  attendant  should  encourage  the  animal  to 
pull  back.  A  few  such  trials  will  be  likely  to  break  it  of  the 
habit.  Another  device  that  works  satisfactorily  is  to  tie  a 
rope  around  the  body  of  the  horse  just  back  of  the  forelegs, 
pass  the  ends  between  the  forelegs,  through  the  halter,  to  the 
manger,  and  back  to  the  halter  again.  Still  another  method  is 
to  loop  a  rope  around  under  the  tail  in  the  manner  of  a 
crupper,  and  pass  the  ends  forward  on  both  sides  of  the  horse's 
body  and  through  the  halter  to  the  manger.  Perhaps  the  com- 
monest method  is  to  tie  a  rope  around  the  horse's  neck  and 
then  to  the  manger. 


39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  33 


OVERHEATING    IN     HORSES 

39.  Horses,  if  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  in 
extremely  hot  weather,  or  if  worked  at  protracted  severe 
labor  in  an  intensely  hot,  humid  atmosphere,  arc  susceptible 

to  sunstroke  or  to  overheating.  Exhaustion  produced  by  a 
long-continued  heat  is  often  the  essential  factor  in  oxer- 
heating,  and  is  called  heat  exhaustion.  In  overheating,  there 
is  a  congestion  of  the  brain  and  it  may  be  sufficient  to  cause 
immediate  death,  hence  it  is  important  that  any  person  work- 
ing horses  should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  cause,  treatment, 
and  prevention  of  this  condition. 

Horses  are  especially  susceptible  to  sunstroke  when  the 
temperature  in  the  sun  is  about  110°  F.  or  more  but  the  danger 
is  not  so  great  if  the  atmosphere  is  dry.  Anything  that  will 
protect  the  top  of  the  head  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
is  beneficial.  Such  devices  as  straw  hats  and  wet  sponges 
are  desirable  for  this  purpose.  Also,  during  hot  periods,  horses 
should  be  watered  frequently  and  allowed  to  rest  in  the  shade 
when  they  show  signs  of  being  tired  or  of  becoming  too  hot. 

Sunstroke  occurs  rather  suddenly.  The  animal  stops, 
begins  to  stagger,  soon  falls  to  the  ground  unconscious,  and  may 
die  in  a  few  minutes  without  regaining  consciousness.  There 
are  certain  symptoms  of  an  oncoming  attack,  however,  that 
may  be  noticed  and  the  attack  possibly  averted.  If  during 
extremely  hot  weather  a  horse  becomes  suddenly  tired,  or 
shows  evidence  of  lacking  its  usual  spirit  and  willingness  to 
keep  going,  sweating  ceases  entirely  and  the  hair  dries  up,  or 
the  animal  sweats  only  in  spots,  it  should  be  stopped  at  once, 
unhitched,  and  no  time  lost  in  cooling  it  off  by  dashing  water 
over  it. 

The  treatment  for  sunstroke  is  to  apply  freely  ice  or  ice-cold 
water  to  the  animal's  head  and  along  its  spine,  and  to  dash 
cold  water  over  its  body  with  a  bucket  or  a  hose  for  10  or 
15  minutes,  until  the  animal  is  cooled  off  and  its  fever  reduced. 
The  limbs  should  be  rubbed  freely  with  spirits  of  camphor  and 
to  the  horse  should  be  given  internally  2  ounces  of  aromatic 
spirits  of  ammonia  in  |  pint  of  water,  or  \  ounce  of  ammonia 


34  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  §39 

carbonate  dissolved  in  1  pint  of  water.  A  few  swallows  of 
cool  water  should  be  given  to  the  horse,  but  it  should  not  be 
allowed  to  have  a  large  quantity,  as  this  might  cause  founder. 
A  good  plan  is  to  give  a  swallow  or  so  every  5  or  10  minutes 
until  the  animal's  thirst  is  quenched.  If  the  horse  does  not 
die,  and  after  the  fever  has  been  reduced  as  just  described,  a 
competent  veterinarian  should  be  called,  as  more  active  stim- 
ulants may  be  required  when  the  reaction  sets  in,  and  other 
treatment  will  be  necessary  during  convalescence,  which  will 
extend  over  a  long  period  of  time,  during  which  the  animal 
will  be  unfit  for  work. 


REGISTRATION   AND   RECORDING   OF    HORSES 

40.  Registration  of  Horses. — The  registration  of  horses  is 
conducted  on  much  the  same  plan  that  is  followed  in  the  case 
of  other  classes  of  domestic  animals.  Each  breed  has  one  or 
more  record  associations  that  maintain  stud  books  in  which 
elegible  animals  can  be  registered  for  a  nominal  fee.  If  an 
owner  desires  to  have  a  certain  horse  registered,  the  first  step 
necessary  is  to  file  a  standard  application  with  the  secretary 
of  one  of  the  record  associations  for  the  animals  of  its  breed. 
In  Fig.  10  is  shown  the  form  of  application  used  by  the 
National  French  Draft  Horse  Association.  Other  associations 
use  somewhat  similar  forms  of  applications. 

If  the  secretary  finds  that  the  horse  is  eligible  for  registration, 
its  name  is  entered  in  the  stud  book  and  a  certificate  of  registry 
is  issued  to  the  owner.  In  Fig.  11  is  illustrated  the  form  of 
certificate  used  by  the  National  French  Draft  Horse  Asso- 
ciation, the  American  Morgan  Register,  the  American  Hackney 
Society,  and  the  American  Clydesdale  Association.  Other 
record  associations,  of  course,  use  certificates  similar  to  these. 

41.  Recording  of  Pedigrees. — If  it  is  desired  to  record  the 
pedigree  of  a  horse,  there  are  a  large  number  of  different  forms  of 
blanks  that  can  be  used.  Most  of  the  record  associations  have 
their  own  form  of  pedigree  blank  for  this  purpose,  although  it  is 
not  necessary  to  use  any  particular  kind.     In  Fig.  12  is  shown 


rtli  IUU  ti  h  UM  Ntj  far  tapMM  ml  lathi  Ire.  Fall  iiaU  laiaiti.  Run  cirifiilli  tta  Rilts  Gnartiat  ne  Entry  of  fliateb  « bad  if  Haul. 

APPLICATION   FOR  REGISTRY 

National  Register  French  Draft  Horses 

Entered  by  \\^^t</    C0-7C        0f    ~-~oC*-)^c^-i>->-v,  te=fc#-c-cj»^     Datehci^.   &£  1910 

Name  of  Animal  (J         %z3^4iA^-n/  Imported  or  Native  Bred 

Foreign  Number  7777''  &  Name  of  Book  in  which  Registered 

Sex  odzZ&Z'-ns         When  foaled  9?Z*asy    S,    /  ? '  JS 

Color  and  Distinguishing  Marks     L^L^e^c-^e. ,  ^ds4<suV/ ,  ^6U-fL*yZ£ \sA^n^£,    Jm-TT 

Name  and  Address  of  Breeder  yty.'~lA^<syiX*aL**J,      ^Lt^ST.  f^  SidL*Ms£n&',  ^£t# 

Name  ahd  Address  of  Owner  Y^tr/i-n/     C^-&,    ~oC<rr^-c6ov,    ^JL-a-K^vJ 

Name  and  Address  of  Importer  y~^&rv    C^&jC,  ~c£^0~rv^0-rv,  ^^t^TX/a^ 


Date  of  Importation. 

.Write  all  proper  names  nlainlyrif  th. 


/f7t 


Willi  till  It  Sill  III!  k  " 


PEDIGREE  OF 

-iO-W^rts 

Ho.(?77/^s7 

(Write  name  of  animal  to  be 
recorded,  and  number  ii  im- 
ported, on  above  lines.) 

Wtiti  Nut  of  Dai  tin  i»- 


5ire    U-tf^eot^- 

^o(4AJ7i) 


Dam  y%aH^^~ 

xoWjLffS)   .  J 


I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  pedi|ree  is  correct  and  in  full    compliance    *ith    the    Rules    of   Entry   of   the 
National  French  Draft  Horse  Association,  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  belief. 

\^hrJ     G^thCs  Applicant. 

Hire  Certificate  Acknowledged  before  Jauict  or  Notary.  Ae  back  ot  IhU  blank. 


Fig.     10 


35 


-'43 — JO 


Fig.  11 


37 


38 


HORSE  MANAGEMENT 


§39 


the  form  of  pedigree  blank  in  use  by  the  Arabian  Horse  Club 
of  America. 


o 


o 


(Ptewe  do  Dot  lay  ' 


TRAN3FER     REPORT 


PERCHERON  SOCIETT  OF  AMERICA 
Uak*  Stock  Tui.  Ck,<M».  m 

nun 


7   /^" 25iZ 

Thi»  Certifies  That  I  tola"  to 


IE  PERCHERON   ?>^^-  >*-£5&r» 

Put  «er  noot*  tAw  iiv  <»U  at  root 
.     Number    </~  O  <?  <*rJ~~~ 


1  KTvict  oeloir,  ffit'ifiu  iit*  o/  wrpict.  or  wrttmotMn 

J  At   /J"     dnyoj.   ^CC-.     _    ,9//...  ^fleftww     L£ZLlcts°I-     ^^~,  191/ 

and  I  do  hereby  authorize  a  (ronj/er  <,/  ownership  made  on  (At  recorder  the  Association  in  accordance  hereuiith. 
S.a„ h.  j  *»*-  yT^^y^r^' 


(?^^fe^fL^L*  ^ 


It  the  animal  traneterred  la  a  FEMALE,  and  wae  eerved  previoue  to  delivery,  the  date  ol  aervloe  and  NAME 
and     NUMBER    ol     Sire    muat     be    given    below    and     be    signed    by^the    breeder.  IF    HOT    SERVED    IT 

MUST  BE  SO    STATED  by  inserting  the  word  'NOT"  at  •  (See 


Served  &&*-  -/  >"i^/Oh 

/        LMU  „/  Sir.*,  " 


Sign 


1  Signed 


■  ol  the  Owner  ol 
mare  at  timed  Service    ^  jjjj, 

KOTE-Thlt  Trawler  mist  be  recorded  111  Itie  Secrrrtati'i  office  baton  produce  can  be  toaaplad  lor  iniri  In  Xlud-Bcot 


Number.  &3  3/2—, 


Fig.  13 


*■*  %  ?  American 

Clydesdale  Association  j 

ABSTRACT  OF  OWNERSHIP 
Q^\f^tX\\i\tB     JU  <f*  tt<  afifUtt*.  of 

\      W,e  fofU.lr.n  cAantjt  m  aumetif^v  of (j^^O^^U^vt. Mo.-qJ~/00 

M       >M<ftAtA  in  uoftroi* /  (f.^\l>   the   fitojirttit   of. Vgt>7-7^&^g-^ — -fi^r-yt^ef 

|       ^   ami   fflVUa*  l/j/ltnrVyVi.A&ifii.   yJLrTstj  <^^  ^J2. 

|     -a^,  Zjryj.     l*<4i«Jx- ^Dateof/tfntL 

$0      ''fittl  triii  dau  (itui  not«I  on  (lit  Hooka  o£_(/ir   (.Llofiatum.       „ 
<?  rV-        /•     /  /        i 


TjdffAj*—. 


Vmm  Sloii  Yards,  Che,;,.  III..  ^ }}VfM      I >J      in!  /■   .  '  """  fl  \ 


Fig   14 


42.     Recording  of  Transfer  of  Ownership. — When  a  regis- 
tered animal  is  sold  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  change  in  owner- 


§39  HORSE  MANAGEMENT  39 

ship  recorded  by  the  secretary  of  the  record  association.  To 
have  this  done  the  former  owner  musl  file  with  the  secretary 
a  standard  form  of  request  for  the  recording  of  a  transfer  of 
ownership.  The  form  used  by  the  Percheron  Society  of 
America  is  shown  in  Fig.   13. 

On  receipt  of  such  a  request,  the  secretary  will  issue  to  the 
new  owner  an  abstract  of  ownership.  The  form  of  abstract 
used  by  the  American  Clydesdale  Association  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1-1. 


PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES 


PONIES 


GENERAL   REMARKS 

1 .  The  distinction  between  ponies  and  horses  is  made  almost 
entirely  on  a  basis  of  size  of  the  animals.  In  general,  all  h<  nr  i  . 
regardless  of  type  or  breed,  that  are  less  than  14|  hands  high  are 
classed  as  ponies.  The  small  size  of  ponies  may  be  attributed 
largely  to  the  adverse  climatic  conditions,  the  scanty  supply  of 
feed,  and  the  inbreeding  to  which  the  animals  were  subjected 
for  many  generations.  Distinct  types  of  diminutive  horses,  or 
ponies,  are  found  in  almost  all  countries.  Thus,  in  the  western 
part  of  Asia,  there  are  the  Arab  and  its  near  allies,  the  Turk, 
the  Barb,  and  the  Persian  ponies;  in  the  eastern  part  of  Asia, 
the  Mongolian,  the  Japanese,  the  Korean,  the  Burma,  and  the 
Manipura  ponies;  in  the  northern  part  of  Europe,  the  Russian 
and  the  Scandinavian,  or  Norwegian,  ponies;  in  the  British 
Isles,  the  Shetland,  the  Welsh,  the  Exmoor,  the  Dartmoor,  the 
New  Forest,  the  Scotland,  the  Galloway,  and  the  Connemara 
ponies;  in  Iceland,  the  Celtic  pony;  and  in  America,  the  bron- 
cos that  were  originally  found  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
United  States  and  the  northern  part  of  Mexico,  the  Indian 
ponies,  found  originally  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  the  western  part  of  Canada,  the  Creole  ponies  of 
Louisiana,  the  Sable  Island  ponies,  and  the  ponies  of  the  Smith 
Atlantic  States.  Besides  these  regional  breeds,  or  types,  of 
ponies,  there  is  a  general  class  of  ponies  being  developed  for 
use  in  playing  polo  that  are  known  as  polo  ponies.  Only  those 
ponies  that  are  of  most  importance  in  America,  namely,  the 
Shetland  pony,  the  Welsh  pony,  the  bronco,  and  the  Indian 
pony,  will  be  discussed  in  this  Section. 

COPYRIGHTED     BY     INTERNATIONAL    TEXTBOOK     COMPANY.        ALL    RIGHTS     RESERVED 

§40 


§40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES 


BRITISH    tSLB    PONIES 


SHETLAND    PONIES 

2.  Nativity  of  the  Shetland  Pony.-  The  native  home  of  the 
Shetland  pony  is  a  group  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
islands  known  as  the  Shetland  Islands,  which  are  located  from 
150  to  200  miles  north  of  Scotland.  Although  these  islands 
are  rather  far  to  the  north,  the  climate  is  tempered  by  the  Gulf 
Stream,  in  the  course  of  which  the  islands  are  located.  How- 
ever, the  winters  are  long  and  severe,  the  wind  blows  almost 
constantly,  and  dense  fogs,  mists,  and  cold  rains  are  much  in 
evidence.  Some  of  the  islands  arc  uninhabited  and  offer  only 
scant  pasturage  for  the  few  sheep  or  ponies  that  are  pastured 
on  them  and  that,  from  the  earliest  history  of  the  islands,  have 
been  known  to  exist  there.  The  severe  weather,  the  scarcity 
of  feed,  which  consists  only  of  hay  and  pasture,  and  the  fact 
that  but  little  if  any  shelter  is  ever  given  to  the  ponies  may 
account  largely  for  the  small  size,  the  enduring  qualities,  and 
the  heavy  coat  of  fine  hair  of  the  Shetland  ponies. 

3.  Description  of  the  Shetland  Pony.— The  average  size  of 
pure-bred  Shetland  ponies,  which  are  the  smallest  of  ponies 
ranges  from  9  to  10  hands;  although  the  minimum  and  maxi- 
mum heights  may  be  placed  at  1\  and  \\\  hands.  The  rela- 
tive size  of  a  Shetland  pony  and  that  of  a  large  work  horse  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  limit  of  the  height  of  ponies  that  may 
be  registered  by  the  Shetland  Pony  Stud  Book  Society  of  Scot- 
land is  42  inches;  the  American  Shetland  Pony  Club  will  regis- 
ter pure-bred  Shetland  ponies  that  are  4(1  inches  in  height  at 
the  withers.  The  height  and  weight  of  a  Shetland  pony  may 
be  increased  by  giving  it  better  care  and  more  feed  than  it 
had  formerly  received.  Thus,  a  pony  brought  from  the  severe 
climate  and  scanty  supply  of  feci  of  the  Shetland  Islands  to 
the  more  temperate  climate,  luxurious  pastures,  and  abundance 
of  feed  of  the  cormbelt  region  of  the  United  States  will,  if  not 
too  old,  increase  in  size.     Also,  the  offspring  of  such  ponies 


§40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  7 

have  a  tendency  to  become  much  larger  than  their  parents. 
The  weight  for  a  Shetland  of  average  height  will  vary  from  325 
to  375  pounds. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  best  specimens  of  Shetland 
ponies  is  that  of  a  diminutive  draft  horse.  The  body  is  deep; 
the  legs  are  short;  the  back  is  short  and  broad;  the  chest  is 
deep  and  full;  the  bone  is  fine,  smooth,  and  strong;  the  neck  is 
short,  muscular,  and  slightly  arched;  the  head  and  ears  are 
small;  and  the  eyes  are  prominent.  In  color,  they  are  usually 
brown,  black,  or  bay;  although  dun,  chestnut,  gray,  piebald, 
and  some  with  white  markings  are  not  uncommon.  Those 
with  white  markings,  such  as  the  mare  illustrated  in  Fig.  2, 
are  very  popular. 

The  coat  of  the  Shetland  is  long  and  shaggy,  especially  on 
an  animal  under  2  years  of  age.  A  striking  example  of  two 
ponies  with  long,  shaggy  coats  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  3.  During 
early  spring,  the  coat  loses  its  luster  and  usually  sheds  in 
patches,  making  a  very  forlorn  looking  pony,  but  after  the 
shedding  is  completed  the  pony  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  fine, 
silky,  lustrous  hair.  A  fine  specimen  of  a  mature  Shetland 
pony  stallion  is  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

4.  Uses  of  Shetland  Ponies. — Shetland  ponies  are  very 
docile,  and  in  their  native  islands  are  used  as  beasts  of  burden, 
to  carry  large  packs  of  dried  peat  that  is  used  for  fuel.  These 
packs  often  weigh  as  much  as  120  or  140  pounds.  A  common 
fall  scene  in  the  Shetland  Islands  of  the  ponies  carrying  peat 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  photographs  from  which  Figs.  3  and  5 
were  made  were  furnished  by  Dr.  S.  B.  Elliot,  of  Markham, 
Virginia.  The  women  often  have  charge  of  this  work  and  make 
companions  of  the  ponies,  allowing  them  to  go  into  their  little 
huts  or  dwellings  much  the  same  as  some  people  do  with  dogs. 

A  large  number  of  Shetland  ponies  are  raised  in  England 
and  Scotland,  where  they  are  used  extensively  for  drawing  cars 
of  coal  in  the  mines  to  the  main  hoisting  shaft.  It  is  claimed 
that  in  the  mines  a  pony  weighing  350  pounds  will  travel 
30  miles  a  day  and  draw,  on  rails,  a  car  weighing  from  1,200 
to  1,400  pounds. 


10  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §40 

In  America,  the  Shetland  pony  is  used  chiefly  by  children 
and  for  light  driving,  that  is,  in  such  outfits  as  is  shown  in 
Fig.  6.  The  ponies  are  easily  trained  for  riding  and  driving, 
and  are  noted  for  their  intelligence,  their  gentle  disposition, 
and  their  freedom  from  the  trickiness  of  some  ponies  and  horses. 

For  delicate  children,  whose  health  would  be  improved  by 
living  out  of  doors,  the  companionship  of  a  Shetland  pony  is  an 
excellent  means  of  inducing  them  to  remain  out  of  doors  much 
of  the  time ;  and  the  exercise  that  the  children  take  in  riding  and 
driving  a  pony  is  generally  considered  to  have  a  most  exhil- 
arating and  health-giving  effect.  On  account  of  the  gentle 
disposition  of  the  Shetland,  and  the  fact  that  it  can  be  easily 
managed  by  a  child  from  9  to  15  years  of  age,  it  is  conceded  to 
be  the  animal  best  adapted  for  the  use  of  children. 

5.  Breeding  of  Shetland  Ponies. — Imported  Shetland 
ponies  should  not  be  bred  until  they  have  become  thoroughly 
acclimated,  and,  like  all  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  they 
should  not  be  too  fat  when  bred.  A  Shetland  mare  should  not 
be  bred  until  she  is  3  years  old ;  but  thereafter  she  may  be  bred 
for  from  20  to  25  years,  or  so  long  as  she  will  produce  strong, 
vigorous  colts.  The  best  time  of  the  year  to  breed  the  mares 
is  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  middle  of  July,  during  which 
time  they  get  an  abundance  of  succulent  grass  and  plenty  of 
exercise.  The  latter  is  just  as  essential,  or  even  more  so,  for  the 
best  condition  of  breeding  stallions  as  it  is  for  breeding  mares. 

A  pregnant  mare  should  be  driven  with  care  up  to  within 
3  weeks  of  the  time  for  foaling;  she  should  have  light  driving  up 
to  within  a  few  days  of  the  time  for  her  to  foal,  at  which  time, 
unless  the  weather  is  stormy,  she  should  be  placed  in  a  pasture 
lot  or  paddock  by  herself.  If  it  should  be  raining,  cold,  or 
stormy,  she  should  be  placed  in  a  rather  large  box  stall. 

6.  Care  of  a  Shetland  Colt  and  Its  Dam. — For  a  few  days 
after  a  mare  foals,  especially  if  she  foals  in  the  spring  or  during 
cold  or  rainy  weather,  the  colt  and  the  dam  should  be  kept 
where  they  can  be  watched  closely,  so  that  assistance  may  be 
given  them  if  necessary.  If  the  mare  foals  during  the  spring, 
it  is  advisable  'that  she  and  the  colt  be  given  shelter  at  night 


§40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  11 

at  least;  but  when  the  weather  becomes  warm  they  should  be 
turned  on  pasture  for  the  following  summer  and  fall. 

Ordinarily,  there  should  be  no  concentrate  feed  given  to  them 
during  the  time  they  are  on  pasture;  but,  if  the  pasturage 
becomes  very  scanty  during  the  summer  and  both  the  mare 
and  her  colt  begin  to  lose  flesh,  extra  forage,  such  as  oats,  rye, 
or  green  corn,  should  be  given  to  them.  And,  if  the  mare 
becomes  very  thin  from  suckling  the  colt,  about  1  quart  of 
oats  and  an  equal  quantity  of  wheat  bran  should  be  given  to 
her  twice  a  day.  If  foaled  in  early  summer,  as  should  be  the 
case,  the  colt  will  increase  in  size  rapidly  and  by  fall  will  be  a 
vigorous,  rugged,  little  fellow  more  than  twice  its  size  at  birth. 

7.  Weaning  a  Shetland  Pony  Colt. — In  the  Shetland  Islands, 
as  a  rule,  the  colts  are  allowred  to  run  with  their  dams  the  first 
winter;  but  some  of  the  most  successful  breeders  of  Shetland 
ponies  outside  of  the  Shetland  Islands  make  a  practice  of  wean- 
ing the  colts  when  they  are  from  5  to  7  months  old  and  supply- 
ing them  with  a  liberal  ration  through  the  winter.  In  order 
that  a  mare  may  experience  no  bad  effects,  such  as  caked  udder, 
from  wreaning  her  colt,  the  colt  should  be  allowed  to  go  to  its 
dam  once  a  day  for  5  or  6  days  to  nurse  out  the  milk  that 
may  accumulate  in  her  udder.  The  colt  and  the  dam  should 
then  be  separated  permanently  and  the  udder  should  be 
emptied  thoroughly  every  2  or  3  days  for  a  week. 

8.  Care  and  Feeding  of  Shetland  Ponies. — In  general,  the 
feeding  and  care  of  Shetland  ponies  after  they  are  wreaned  is 
much  the  same  as  that  of  horses;  but,  since  the  ponies  are  very 
much  smaller  than  horses,  they  require  a  much  smaller  quan- 
tity of  feed.  In  fact,  the  quantity  of  feed  required  for  Shet- 
land ponies  is  about  the  same,  per  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight, 
as  for  draft  horses;  that  is,  about  the  same  quantity  of  feed 
that  is  required  by  a  1,100-pound  draft  horse  will  be  sufficient 
for  at  least  three  350-pound  ponies.  But  the  quantity  of  feed 
required  at  any  time  will,  of  course,  vary  according  to  the 
energy  expended  by  horse  or  pony. 

Colts,  until  they  are  2  years  old,  should  not  be  worked,  and 
should  be  allowed  all  the  fine,  bright,  well-cured  hay  that  they 
243 — ti 


12  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §  40 

will  eat  or  have  the  run  of  a  good  pasture.  For  mature  ponies 
that  are  under  the  saddle  or  in  harness  for  only  a  few  hours 
each  day,  and  are  used  by  rather  small  children,  1  pint  of  wheat 
bran  or  of  oats  or  an  ear  of  corn  given  to  each  pony  once  a  day 
will  be  sufficient.  But  a  pony  10  to  10h  hands  high  and  used 
several  hours  a  day  by  adults  as  well  as  by  children  should  have 
from  1  to  1|  quarts  of  oats  three  times  a  day. 

Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  drive  or  ride  a  pony  so  long 
that  it  becomes  very  hot  and  sweats  profusely;  but  in  case  it 
does  become  very  much  warmed  up  from  exercise,  grain  feed 
or  more  than  from  six  to  ten  swallows  of  water  should  not  be 
given  to  it  until  it  has  cooled  off.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
a  pony  should  be  watered  before  and  after  eating  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  forenoon  and  the  afternoon. 

9.  Registration  of  Pure-Bred  Shetland  Ponies. — The  inter- 
ests of  pure-bred  Shetland  ponies  in  regard  to  the  improvement 
of  the  breed,  the  keeping  of  records  of  pedigrees,  the  transfer 
of  ownership,  etc.,  are  looked  after  in  America  by  the  American 
Shetland  Pony  Club,  which  was  organized  in  1888.  This  club 
furnishes  the  blank  forms  that,  when  correctly  filled  out  and 
accompanied  by  the  proper  fee,  are  necessary  for  the  registra- 
tion of  a  pure-bred  Shetland  pony. 

10.  Scale  of  Points  for  Shetland  Ponies. — As  an  aid  to 
judges,  the  American  Shetland  Pony  Club  has  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing scale  of  points  for  the  Shetland  pony: 

Scale  of  Points  Points 

Constitution. — Indicated  by  general  healthy  appearance,  perfect 

respiration,  and  brightness  of  eye 10 

Size. — Ponies  over  4  years  old  42  inches  and  under  in  height,  two 

points  to  be  deducted  for  every  inch  over  42  inches  up  to  46  inches, 

fractional  portions  to  count  as  full  inches 25 

Head. — Symmetrical,  rather  small  and  fine,  wide  between  the  eyes; 

ears  short  and  erect 10 

Body. — Barrel  well  rounded,  back  short  and  level,  deep  chest,  good 

breast,  compact  "pony  build " 10 

Legs. — Muscular,  flat  boned,  hind  leg  not  cowhocked  or  too  crooked .     25 

Mane  and  Tail. — Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy 10 

Feet.— Good 10 

100 


14  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §  40 


WELSH     PONIES 

11.  The  Welsh  pony,  as  the  name  implies,  is  a  native  of 
Wales;  or  at  least,  this  pony  has  been  known  to  exist  in  Wales 
since  the  earliest  history  of  that  country.  In  general  confor- 
mation, the  Welsh  pony,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7,  resembles  the 
roadster  type  of  horses,  instead  of  the  draft  type,  as  does  the 
Shetland  pony.  The  Welsh  pony  is  a  sturdy,  stockily  built 
animal,  has  a  beautiful  head,  sloping  shoulders,  clean,  smooth 
legs,  and  is  heavily  muscled.  It  is  larger  than  the  Shetland, 
ranging  in  height  from  11  to  13  hands.  The  size  varies  some- 
what according  to  parentage,  the  care  and  the  quantity  of 
feed  given  to  them ;  etc.  Ponies  from  the  mountainous  regions 
of  Wales  are  smaller  than  those  from  the  lowlands,  where  the 
natural  feed  conditions  are  more  favorable  than  those  in  the 
mountainous  sections. 

The  Welsh  pony  is  generally  conceded  to  be  more  alert  and 
quicker  in.  action  than  is  the  Shetland  pony.  These  qualities 
are  due,  perhaps,  to  a  cross  of  Arabian  blood  at  some  early  time 
on  the  native  Welsh  ponies.  On  account  of  the  more  lively 
action  and  the  larger  size  of  the  Welsh  ponies,  they  are  not 
usually  considered  to  be  so  well  adapted  for  the  use  of  small 
children  as  are  Shetland  ponies.  But  where  larger  ponies  than 
Shetlands  are  desired,  for  driving  and  riding  by  adults  or  by 
children  from  12  to  18  years  old,  Welsh  ponies  are  admirably 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  Also,  Welsh  ponies  are  used  exten- 
sively in  playing  polo. 

The  breeding,  care,  and  management  of  Welsh  ponies  is  prac- 
tically the  same  as  that  for  light  horses. 


AMERICAN    PONIES 

12.  The  ponies  of  America  are  the  descendants  of  horses 
that  were  brought  to  America  by  early  Spanish  explorers.  It 
is  supposed  that  some  of  these  horses  either  escaped  or  were 
turned  loose  and  that  their  offspring  formed  the  herds  of  wild 
horses  that  roamed  over  the  plains  of  the  western  portion  of 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and  the  northern  portion  of  Mex- 


16  POX  IKS.  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §40 

ico.  These  horses,  or  ponies,  were  tough,  wiry,  hardy,  and 
variously  colored;  some  of  them  were  beautiful  animals  with 
fine  heads  showing  much  character,  and  they  had  high-class 
limbs  and  feet.  A  few  were  domesticated  by  the  Indians,  but 
it  remained  for  the  pioneer  settlers  and  cowboys  of  the  plains 
to  catch,  subdue,  and  break  these  bucking,  courageous  little 
animals.  There  existed  two  rather  distinct  types  of  the  wild 
horses  of  western  America,  namely,  the  broncos,  which  are  found 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Mexico, 
and  the  Indian  ponies,  which  were  found  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  western  part  of  Canada. 


BRONCO    PONIES 

13.  Bronco  ponies  are  not  often  more  than  1-4  hands  high 
and  weigh  about  800  pounds.  They  are  exceedingly  hardy, 
have  good,  strong  constitutions,  excellent  feet,  strong  legs, 
and  usually  can  endure  much  hardship.  In  the  best  types  of 
the  broncos,  such  as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  8,  the  head  is  small 
and  clean-cut;  the  eyes  are  bright  and  piercing;  the  ears  are 
small  and  attractively  set;  the  neck  is  of  medium  length,  well 
crested,  and  very  well  carried;  and  the  body  is  short,  deep,  and 
muscular.  The  bronco  is  not  a  particularly  swift  animal,  as 
ranchmen,  astride  a  good  domestic  horse,  could  ride  down  and 
capture  the  bronco  in  its  wild  state.  However,  the  bronco 
has  great  endurance,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  it 
frequently  has  been  ridden  by  a  heavy  man  in  a  50-pound  sad- 
dle for  several  days  in  succession  over  rough,  rock}'  trails. 

During  the  pioneering  period  of  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  the  broncos  were  extensively  used  by  the  ranchmen  as 
saddle  horses ;  but  as  the  country  became  more  and  more  devel- 
oped, there  was  a  decreasing  demand  for  broncos  and  an 
increasing  demand  for  larger  and  swifter  horses.  Large  num- 
bers of  grade  bronco  ponies,  that  is,  the  offspring  of  native 
bronco  mares  and  domestic  stallions,  have  been  shipped  to  the 
cities,  where  they  are  used  for  drawing  light  delivery  wagons, 
for  light  driving,  and  as  saddle  ponies;  and  a  few  of  the  better 
ones  have  been  used  for  polo  playing. 


§  40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  17 

The  breeding  of  bronco  ponies  takes  place  almost  entirely 
on  the  large  ranches  in  the-  western  part  of  the  United  States; 
but  even  there  they  are  rapidly  being  replaced  by  better,  larger 
horses. 

INDIAN    PONIES 

14.  Indian  ponies  were  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  western  part  of 
Canada;  they  are  slightly  smaller,  but  are  more  compact  of 
body,  have  stronger  bone,  and  are  more  tractable,  more  intel- 
ligent, and  display  more  courage  than  the  broncos.  The 
Indian  ponies  often  have  considerable  hair  on  their  legs,  and 
heavy  manes  and  tails.  This  hairiness  is  not  a  common  char- 
acter of  the  broncos,  and  indicates  that  the  Indian  pony  and 
the  bronco  pony  are  probably  not  descendants  of  the  same 
foundation  stock. 

Indian  ponies  are  used  for  much  the  same  purpose  as  broncos, 
and,  like  broncos,  they  are  rapidly  being  replaced  by  superior 
horses. 

ASSES 

15.  General  Description. — The  ass,  or  as  it  is  often  called, 
the  donkey,  or  burro,  belongs  to  the  same  genus  of  animals 
as  the  horse,  although  it  differs  from  the  horse  in  several 
details.  The  ears  are  very  large  and  long;  the  body  is  short, 
very  compact,  nearly  round,  and  is  often  covered  with  very 
long  hair,  especially  during  the  winter  months.  The  foretop 
and  mane  are  very  scanty  and  stand  nearly  upright;  the  tail 
bears  no  long  hair  except  near  its  end,  which  is  covered  with 
a  brush  of  rather  long  hair;  the  quarters  lack  the  deep  muscling 
of  draft  horses;  the  bones  of  the  legs  are  large  and  strong,  the 
joints  are  sometimes  rather  large,  and  the  feet  are  small  and 
narrow. 

In  size,  asses  vary  from  the  small  ass,  or  burro,  which  is 
often  not  more  than  9  hands  high,  to  asses  16  hands  in  height. 
In  America,  the  prevailing  color  of  asses  for  mule  breeding  is 
very  dark  brown  or  black  with  light  points,  that  is,  with  a  light 


§40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  19 

creamy  color  around  the  eyes,  covering  the  muzzle,  and  on  the 
1  telly.  A  good  specimen  of  a  mule-breeding  jack  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  9.     Gray  or  blue  gray  is  a  common  color  of  the  small  asses. 

16.  Uses  of  Asses. — The  chief  use  of  asses  in  America  is 
that  of  using  the  jacks  for  breeding  with  mares  for  the  pro- 
duction of  mules.  The  small  asses  are  used  extensively  as 
pack  animals  over  rough,  mountainous  trails.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  small  animals  are  especially  adapted,  as  they  are 
particularly  sure  footed,  are  extremely  docile,  and  bear  with 
much  endurance  and  stability  heavy  and  sometimes  bulky 
packs.  In  some  localities  the  burro  is  used  for  drawing  loads 
of  coal  and  ore  in  mines  from  the  workings  to  the  hoisting  shaft. 

17.  Breeding  of  Jacks  to  Mares. — The  breeding  of  a  marc 
to  a  jack  does  not  differ  in  many  respects  from  that  of  breeding 
her  to  a  stallion.  Jacks,  however,  are  very  timid  animals  and 
often  refuse  to  serve  under  strange  surroundings  or  to  serve 
a  mare  if  they  have  previously  been  used  in  serving  jennies. 
Jacks  that  are  to  be  used  for  mule  breeding  should  be  raised 
with  horses,  for  many  jacks,  if  they  are  raised  with  asses, 
absolutely  refuse  to  serve  mares;  and  sometimes  a  jack 
that  has  been  trained  to  serve  mares  will  refuse  to  continue 
to  do  so  if  it  is  once  allowed  to  serve  a  jenny. 

A  stallion  should  be  used  to  tease  the  mares,  and  when  a 
mare  is  found  to  be  in  heat,  the  stallion  should  be  removed 
and  all  preparations  made  so  that  the  jack  may  mount  as  soon 
as  he  is  led  from  the  stall.  If  he  refuses  to  mount,  he  should 
not  be  abused  but  coaxed  and  petted.  Sometimes  a  jack 
may  be  induced  to  serve  a  mare  by  blindfolding  him,  and  by 
dampening  the  tail  of  the  mare  with  the  urine  of  a  jenny. 
If  a  large  mare  is  to  be  bred  to  a  jack,  some  arrangement,  such 
as  a  breeding  chute  or  a  pit,  should  be  provided  so  that  the 
marc  may  be  lowered  to  about  the  height  of  the  jack. 

18.  Breeds  of  Asses. — On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  ass 
has  been  raised  in  widely  different  sections  of  the  world  and 
under  varying  conditions  of  climate,  care,  and  feed,  there  have 
been  developed  several  rather  distinct  strains,  or  breeds.     The 


20  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §40 

jacks  that  are  used  most  extensively  in  the  United  States  for 
mule  raising  are  of  the  Catalonian.  Andalusian.  Majorca, 
Poitou,  and  Maltese  breeds. 

The  Catalonian  jacks  come  from  the  northeastern  part  of 
Spain.  They  are  black  or  dark  brown  with  light  points, 
and  are  from  \A\  to  15  hands  high.  For  jacks,  they  possess 
unusual  style,  beauty,  and  action.  Their  heads  are  said  to 
show  character;  and  their  ears  are  rarely  droopy.  These 
jacks  are  win*  and  tough,  mature  at  an  early  age,  and  are 
used  freely  in  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky  for  the 
production  of  breeding  jacks  and  large,  high-grade  mules. 

The  Andalusian  jacks  come  from  the  southern  part  of  Spain, 
are  usually  gray  but  sometimes  black,  stand  14^  to  15^  hands 
high,  and  have  a  good  quality  of  bone.  Although  these  jacks 
are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  they  are  not 
popular,  perhaps  on  account  of  their  light  color. 

The  Majorca  jacks  come  from  the  island  of  Majorca,  which 
is  oft  the  coast  of  Spain  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  They 
stand  on  an  average  loi  hands  high.  They  lack  style  and 
action,  and,  in  fact,  have  a  tendency  to  be  sluggish.  Their 
heads  and  ears  are  very*  large ;  the  ears  are  claimed  to  be  longer 
than  those  of  any  other  breed  of  asses.  In  appearance  the 
Majorca  jacks  are  large,  approaching  the  draft  type  of  animal. 

Although  the  Poitou  ass  is  claimed  to  be  the  strongest  of  any 
breed  of  asses,  the  jacks  have  not  been  used  by  American  mule 
breeders  as  extensively  as  the  Catalonian  jacks.  The  best 
specimens  of  the  Poitou  jack  are  black  with  light  points  and 
van,*  in  height  from  13|  to  15  hands.  The  head  and  ears  are 
very  large;  the  mouth  and  nostrils  are  small;  the  neck  is  short, 
thick,  and  broad;  the  body  is  long  and  deep;  the  legs  are  short, 
straight,  and  flat,  and  the  bone  is  large  and  hard;  the  hoeks 
are  very  large;  and  the  feet  are  large  and  more  spreading  than 
are  those  of  any  other  breed  of  asses. 

The  Maltese  jacks  come  from  the  island  of  Malta  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  they  are  black  or  brown  in  color;  usually 
stand  about  lih  hands;  arc  very  lively  and  active;  the  head  is 
of  good  form,  with  sharp,  upright  ears;  and  the  bone  is  finer 
than  that  most  desired. 


§  40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  21 

19.  Care  and  Management  of  Asses.— The  same  care  and 
management  that  is  recommended  for  draft  horses  is  equally 
applicable  for  asses.  The  latter  respond  as  readily  as  horses 
to  good  care  and  an  abundance  of  feed;  but  horses  cannot 
subsist  and  maintain  their  strength  on  so  coarse,  rough,  scanty 
feed  as  asses  can. 

MULES 

20.  General  Description.— A  mule  is  a  hybrid  resulting 
from  the  crossing  of  a  jack  and  a  mare.  If  the  cross  is  reversed 
and  a  stallion  is  bred  to  a  jenny,  the  resulting  offspring  is  called 
a  hinny.  The  conformation  of  the  mule  resembles,  in  most 
respects,  that  of  its  sire,  but  in  the  best  specimen  of  draft 
mules  the  influence  of  the  dam  is  shown  in  the  size  of  the  mule, 
m  the  shape  of  its  body,  and  in  its  strength  and  courage.  The 
head  of  the  mule  is  large,  with  a  somewhat  Roman  nose-  the 
ears  are  large  and  long;  the  mane  is  rather  scant  and  stands 
upright;  and  the  body  is  somewhat  smaller  and  more  round 
than  that  of  the  dam,  although  the  more  nearly  it  approaches 
the  shape  of  the  draft  horse  the  more  desirable  is  the  mule. 
In  the  best  specimens,  the  legs  are  well  muscled,  the  tendons 
are  easily  distinguished  and  sometimes  are  quite  prominent, 
and  the  bone  is  large,  fine,  smooth,  and  hard;  and  the  feet  are 
narrower  and  longer  than  those  of  the  mare,  but  are  larger 
and  more  spreading  than  those  of  the  jack. 

In  size,  mules  vary  from  600  to  1,800  pounds,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  jacks  and  mares  used  in  producing  them  and 
according  to  the  care  and  feed  used  in  raising  them.  Also, 
the  color  of  mules  varies  according  to  the  color  of  their  parents.' 
The  common  colors  are  black,  brown,  bay,  sorrel,  chestnut. 
gray,  and  white;  brown  and  bay  are  the  colors  most  often  seen. 

21.  Temperament  of  Mules.— Mules  are  quiet,  patient 
animals,  and  for  steady,  hard  pulling  they  are  superior  to  any 
class  of  animals  in  the  horse  family.  Mules  are  not  nearly  so 
much  given  to  kicking  as  is  generally  believed;  in  fact,  persons 
m  position  to  speak  authoritatively  on  the  subject  claim  that 
when  mules  are  properly  treated  they  are  no  worse  in  this 


22  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §  40 

respect  than  are-  horses.  But,  if  mules  are  abused  they  kick 
in  self-defense  and  if  kicking  proves  effective  in  stopping  the 
abuse,  they  resort  to  this  method  of  defense  very  readily. 

22.  Endurance  of  Mules. — It  is  generally  conceded  that 
mules  can  endure  hard  work  for  a  longer  period  and  subsist 
on  a  smaller  quantity  and  poorer  quality  of  feed  than  can 
horses.  Also,  mules  are  hardier  and  more  able  to  endure  the 
hot  sun  than  horses,  and  for  this  reason  are  more  commonly 
used  than  draft  horses  in  southern  climates.  In  spite  of  the 
hard  work  that  they  usually  perform  and  the  indifferent  care 
that  they  sometimes  receive,  mules,  as  a  rule,  live  much  longer 
than  horses.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  them  to  be  in  working 
condition  at  30  years  of  age  and  there  are  records  of  mules 
having  lived  until  they  were  40  years  old. 

23.  Influence   of   Sex  on  the   Salability  of  Mules. — The 

sexual  organs  of  mules  are  incomplete  to  the  extent  that  these 
animals  do  not  breed.  A  few  cases  have  been  reported  where 
a  female  mule  has  become  impregnated  and  produced  young; 
if  authentic,  such  cases  are  exceedingly  rare.  As  a  rule, 
female  mules  are  more  popular  with  dealers  and  feeders  and 
usually  sell  more  readily  than  do  male  mules.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  female  mules  mature  at  a  slightly  earlier  age, 
are  not  inclined  to  be  so  angular,  and  can  be  fattened  more 
easily  when  young  than  the  male  mules.  Although,  for  certain 
kinds  of  work,  male  rnules  are  preferred. 

24.  Resistance  of  Mules  to  Diseases. — It  is  often  claimed 
by  mule  dealers  that  mules  are  immune  from  the  diseases  and 
ailments  with  which  horses  are  commonly  afflicted.  This  claim, 
however,  is  only  partly  true,  as  careful  investigations  have 
shown  that,  although  mules  are  apparently  exempt  from  certain 
diseases,  they  are  very  susceptible  to  other  diseases.  Thus, 
in  certain  sections  of  the  United  States  infested  with  buffalo 
gnats,  mules  succumb  to  the  attacks  of  these  insects  more  than 
do  any  other  class  of  domestic  animals.  On  the  other  hand, 
mules  are  not  so  subject  to  disease  and  unsoundness  of  the  legs 
and  feet  as  are  horses,  and  the  cases  of  spavin,  ringbone,  or 


§40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  23 

sidebonc  that  do  occur  on  mules  do  not  as  greatly  reduce  their 
commercial  value  as  such  unsoundnesses  do  on  horses. 

25.  Use  of  Mules.— The  chief  use  of  mules  is  for  draft 
purposes.  In  the  southern  and  central  portions  of  the  United 
States  mules  are  used  extensively  on  farms  and  plantations  for 
agricultural  purposes;  they  are  also  used  much  more  generally 
than  horses  by  contractors  in  the  United  States  in  the  con- 
struction of  levees  and  railroad  grades;  and  in  coal  mines 
mules  are  practically  the  only  animals  used  for  drawing  cars 
of  coal  from  the  workings  in  the  mines  to  the  hoisting  shafts. 
In  fact,  almost  everywhere  that  draft  animals  arc  required, 
mules  are  extensively  used.  In  some  portions  of  the  southern 
part  of  the  United  States  mules  are  used  as  saddle  animals, 
especially  by  negroes;  and,  in  some  sections  they  are  driven, 
singly  and  in  pairs,  as  carriage  animals  and  have  drawn  forth 
favorable  comment  on  account  of  their  action  and  speed. 

26.  Market  Requirements  for  Mules.— The  mule  market 
requires  sound,  shapely,  mature  young  mules,  with  size  and 
action  suitable  for  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put;  and 
their  market  value  is  rated  on  soundness,  conformation,  size, 
general  appearance,  condition,  quality,  age,  color,  and  action. 

Soundness  is  more  important  than  everything  else.  Mules, 
like  horses,  to  be  useful  must  be  serviceably  sound.  There 
is  no  objection  to  slight  blemishes  that  do  not  interfere  with 
the  serviceability  of  the  animals;  but  there  is  always  objec- 
tion to  an  unsoundness  or  blemish  that  is  likely  to  interfere 
with  the  usefulness  of  a  mule  in  any  way.  Thus,  serious 
objection  is  made  to  wire  marks  about  the  feet  of  mules  that 
are  to  be  worked  in  the  mines,  since  these  marks  are  easiry 
affected  by  sulphur  or  other  minerals  with  which  the  feet 
constantly  come  in  contact  in  mines.  However,  such  a  blem- 
ish might  not  be  objectionable  on  mules  that  are  to  be  worked 
on  farms.  The  most  common  unsoundnesses  that  are  objected 
to  and  looked  for  are  large  spavins,  puffs,  sidebones,  ring- 
bones, bad  eyes,  and  broken  wind. 

The  conformation  of  mules  should  be  indicative  of  strength 
and  endurance,  and  their  size  should  be  suitable  for  the  work 


24  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §  40 

that  they  arc  expected  to  do.  Mules  that  work  on  city  streets 
usually  wear  out  first  in  the  feet,  and  because  of  this  fact  good, 
large,  feet  are  an  important  consideration  of  the  buyer  when 
he  is  purchasing  a  mule  for  city  use.  For  farm  use  the  size 
of  the  feet  does  not  command  so  much  attention. 

The  general  appearance  of  mules  is  an  important  market 
requirement,  and  is  greatly  affected  by  the  quantity  of  flesh 
that  is  carried  and  the  quality  of  the  coat.  The  market 
demands  that  choice  mules  be  in  good  condition  and  have 
enough  flesh  to  round  out  their  bodies.  Many  mule  dealers 
make  a  business  of  buying  mules  that  are  in  thin  flesh,  or  poor, 
and  fattening  and  then  reselling  them.  The  estimated  value 
of  the  flesh  thus  put  on  the  mules  is  25  cents  per  pound.  The 
market  requires  that  the  mules  should  show  quality,  which 
is  indicated  by  a  sleek,  glossy  coat  of  short  hair,  a  coat  of  this 
description  often  being  estimated  to  be  worth  about  $10,  and 
by  firm,  clean,  strong  bone. 

The  most  desirable  age  for  mules  is  determined  somewhat 
by  the  market  class  in  which  a  mule  is  placed ;  but  in  most  cases 
the  most  salable  age  is  from  4  to  8  years. 

Color  is  of  secondary  consideration  as  a  market  requirement ; 
dapple-gray  mules  are  very  popular  in  the  draft  class;  but  as 
a  general  rule  bays,  browns,  and  chestnuts  are  most  desirable; 
and  matched  pairs  usually  sell  for  more  than  double  the  price 
of  single  mules.  Action,  also,  is  a  minor  consideration  in  mules 
so  long  as  they  are  not  sore  in  limbs  and  show  vigor  and  energy 
in  their  movements. 

27.  Market  Classes  of  Mules. — On  account  of  the  various 

purposes  for  which  mules  are  used,  there  exists  in  the  leading 
mule  markets  an  active  demand  for  large  numbers  of  mules 
of  distinctly  different  description  as  regards  size  and  general 
conformation.  In  the  East  St.  Louis  mule  market,  which  is 
the  largest  mule  market  in  the  world,  all  mules  are  sold  in  one 
of  the  five  following  market  classes:  Mining  mules,  cotton 
mules,  sugar  mules,  farm  mules,  and  draft  mules. 

28.  Mining  mules  are  such  mules  as  are  purchased  for  use 
in  and  about  mines.     Mules  for  this  purpose  must  be  compact 


§  40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  27 

in  conformation,  have  a  short  and  deep  body,  short  legs,  strong 
and  heavy  bone,  large  feet,  and  be  rugged  throughout.  Small 
mules  used  in  mines  where  a  thin  vein  of  coal  or  ore  is  worked 
are  called  pit  mules;  their  height  will  depend  on  the  depth  of 
the  vein  in  which  they  are  used.  For  this  reason  mining  mules 
range  in  height  from  12  to  10  hands  and  vary  in  weight  from 
600  to  1 ,350  pounds.  The  colors  most  sought  in  mining  mules 
are  dark  bay  and  black.  The  mule  shown  in  Fig.  10  is  14|  hands 
high,  weighs  about  1,100  pounds,  is  a  choice  animal,  and  is 
typical  of  the  market  class  of  mining  mules. 

The  demand  for  this  class  of  mules  in  the  large  mule  mar- 
kets is  strong  and  constant  throughout  the  entire  year  and 
for  this  reason  mining  mules  usually  command  very  satisfac- 
tory prices.  Male  mules  from  5  to  8  years  old  are  more  in 
demand  than  are  female  or  younger  mules,  although  well- 
preserved  mules  up  to  12  years  of  age  are  readily  salable. 

29.  Cotton  mules  are  such  mules  as  are  used  on  cotton 
plantations  for  planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting  the  cot- 
ton crop.  However,  many  mules  that  are  sold  as  cotton 
mules  never  see  a  cotton  field,  but  are  used  for  many  other 
purposes,  chief  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  drawing 
of  delivery  wagons  in  the  cities  of  certain  sections  of  the  United 
States.  These  mules  show  much  quality  in  their  general  con- 
formation. They  have  small,  neat  heads  and  compact  bodies; 
and,  as  a  rule,  they  have  longer  legs,  smaller  feet,  are  lighter  in 
weight,  and  higher  in  proportion  to  their  weight  than  are 
mining  mules.  In  height,  they  vary  from  13^  to  15^  hands; 
in  weight,  they  vary  from  750  to  1,100  pounds.  A  choice 
cotton  mule  15|  hands  high,  weighing  about  1,050  pounds, 
and  showing  a  high  degree  of  quality  and  finish  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1 1 . 

The  demand  for  cotton  mules  is  strongest  throughout  the 
fall  and  winter  months,  young  mare  mules  from  3  to  7  years 
old  being  preferred. 

30.  Sugar  mules  are  such  mules  as  are  sold  in  the  mule 
markets  to  be  taken  to  the  sugar  plantations  of  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  and  other  Southern  States  for  agricultural  purposes. 

243—42 


§  40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  29 

They  arc  larger,  taller,  have  heavier  bone,  and  usually  have 
more  quality  and  finish  than  cotton  mules.  For  this  reason 
the  former  usually  commands  a  somewhat  higher  price  than 
do  cotton  mules.  The  market — which  for  sugar  mules  is 
strongest  during  the  months  of  September,  October,  and 
November — shows  a  preference  for  mares  that  are  from  3  to 
6  years  of  age.  Sugar  mules  stand  from  16  to  17  hands  high 
and  weigh  from  1,150  to  1,300  pounds.  A  choice  sugar  mule 
lb|  hands  high,  weighing  about  1,200  pounds,  and  possessing 
much  quality  and  finish  is  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

31.  Farm  mules  are  such  mules  as  are  sold  to  be  used  for 
general  farm  work.  Mules  of  this  class  lack  uniformity  in 
conformation,  and  do  not  have  the  style  and  finish  that  are 
required  in  all  other  market  classes  of  mules.  The  lack  of 
uniformity  is  due  to  the  facts  that  farmers  differ  very  widely 
as  to  the  kind  of  mules  that  are  best  suited  for  farm  work, 
and  that  many  farmers  desire  to  purchase  young,  thin  mules 
then  after  working  them  for  a  year  or  more  to  fatten  and  resell 
them  as  mining,  sugar,  or  cotton  mules.  Although  farm  mules, 
as  they  leave  the  markets,  are  likely  to  be  rather  plain  looking 
and  thin  in  flesh,  they  usually  possess  good  constitutions, 
strong,  clean  bone,  and  fairly  large  feet.  They  usually  stand 
from  15^  to  16  hands  high  and  weigh  from  900  to  1,250  pounds. 
The  mule  shown  in  Fig.  13  stands  15f  hands  high,  weighs  about 
1,150  pounds,  and  shows  such  quality  and  finish  as  is  found  in 
choice  farm  mules. 

The  demand  for  farm  mules  is  not  so  great  and  they  usually 
sell  for  less  than  mules  of  the  other  market  classes.  Sex  and 
age  do  not  have  as  much  bearing  on  the  prices  of  farm  mules 
as  these  factors  have  on  the  prices  of  other  classes  of  mules. 

32.  Draft  mules,  like  draft  horses,  are  large,  strong,  low- 
set  animals  with  all  the  weight  that  can  be  secured  with  a  draft- 
horse  type  of  conformation.  They  are  very  rugged  and  well- 
muscled;  the  body  of  a  draft  mule  is  short,  deep,  and  broad; 
the  back  is  broad  and  short;  the  legs  are  large  and  clean;  and 
the  feet  are  large.  They  are  extensively  used  for  teaming, 
especially  where  heavy  loads  are  to  be  moved;  they  are  like- 


32  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §  40 

wise  used  extensively  by  contractors  for  railroad  grading,  and 
because  of  this  fact  they  are  sometimes  called  railroad  mules. 
The  usual  range  in  height  is  from  16  to  17|  hands,  and  the 
range  in  weight  is  from  1,200  to  1,600  pounds;  although  the 
latter  weight  is  often  exceeded.  A  large,  rugged,  choice,  draft 
mule  that  measures  17  hands  high  and  weighs  about  1,500 
pounds  is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

The  demand  for  draft  mules  is  strong  and  constant.  Mules 
from  5  to  8  years  of  age  are  in  greatest  demand  and  there  is 
little  difference  in  preference  in  respect  to  sex. 

33.  Mule  Raising. — The  first  essential  to  the  raising  of 
first-class  mules  is  the  selection  of  a  good,  sound  mare  with  a 
deep,  capacious  chest,  well-sprung  ribs,  close  coupling,  long 
and  nicely  turned  croup,  deep  muscular  quarters,  broad  thighs, 
smooth  heavy  bone,  and  large  sound  feet.  If  it  is  intended  to 
raise  mining  or  draft  mules,  a  low-set  mare  should  be  used; 
if  sugar  and  cotton  mules  are  to  be  raised,  a  rather,  tall  mare 
should  be  used.  The  more  quality,  style,  and  action  that  is 
possessed  by  the  mare,  the  more  pronounced  these  qualities 
will  be  in  the  mules.  The  theory  is  advanced  by  some  mule 
breeders  that  an  unsound  mare,  when  bred  to  a  jack,  is  more 
likely  to  produce  a  sound  mule  than  to  produce  a  sound  colt 
when  bred  to  a  stallion,  and,  on  account  of  this  fact,  there  is  a 
common  custom  of  breeding  unsound  mares  to  jacks  rather 
than  to  stallions.  It  must  not  be  understood  from  this,  how- 
ever, that  as  good  a  mule  can  be  raised  from  an  unsound  mare 
as  from  a  sound  one,  for  such  is  not  usually  the  case.  But 
the  unsoundness,  if  it  is  reproduced  in  the  mule,  is  not  per- 
petuated, as  might  be  the  case  in  horse  colts. 

The  second  essential  in  raising  choice  mules  is  the  selection 
of  a  jack  that  gets  good,  strong  mules.  A  jack  should  not 
stand  less  than  15  hands  high.  He  should  have  a  large  head, 
a  rather  heavy  jaw,  a  tapering  muzzle,  and  long  ears  that  are 
heavy  at  their  base  and  taper  to  a  point;  long  shoulders;  a 
deep  chest;  long,  well-sprung  ribs;  a  rather  short,  straight 
back;  close  coupling;  a  long  croup;  deep  quarters;  thick  thighs; 
strong,  heavy  bones;  and  large  feet. 


§  40  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  33 

A  young  mule  taxes  the  energy  of  a  marc  more  than  does  a  colt, 
because  the  former  is  always  pulling  at  the  dug,  or  teat.  The 
young  mules  should  be  halter  broken  and  handled  the  same  as 
colts,  and  as  soon  as  the  mules  arc-  weaned  they  should  be 
placed  in  a  pasture  by  themselves,  because  they  are  very  mis- 
chievous and  if  placed  in  the  same  pasture  with  calves,  sheep, 
or  pigs  will  worry  and  perhaps  injure  them.  Mules  seem  to 
thrive  best  if  they  are  not  tied  up  in  stalls,  but  are  allowed  to 
run  on  pasture,  and,  during  the  winter  months,  especially  in 
those  sections  where  the  winters  are  cold,  have  access  to  a 
warm  shed  or  large  box  stall  in  a  barn  and  are  supplied  with 
grain  and  hay. 

34.  Feeding  of  Mules. — Although  the  same  general  prin- 
ciples governing  the  feeding  of  draft  horses  will  apply  to  the 
feeding  of  mules,  the  latter  differ  from  horses  somewhat  in 
their  habits  of  eating  and  drinking.  Mules  seem  to  know 
enough  not  to  eat  a  large  quantity  of  feed  nor  to  drink  too 
much  water  at  one  time  or  when  they  are  heated  by  exercise. 
If  a  mule  has  his  liberty  after  working  hard  all  day  and  has 
access  to  feed  and  wrater,  he  will  drink  a  few  swallows  of  water, 
eat  a  few  mouthfuls  of  feed,  lie  down  and  roll,  and,  upon  getting 
up  will  repeat  this  routine  for  a  dozen  times  or  more  during  an 
evening.  In  this  way  he  will  consume  a  larger  quantity  of  feed 
and  water  during  the  night  and  will  keep  in  better  condition 
than  if  tied  in  a  stall  at  night.  As  mules  consume  their  grain 
feed  slowly,  they  should  not  be  hurried  at  feeding  time,  and 
should  receive  a  larger  quantity  of  feed  at  night  than  at  the 
morning  or  noon  feed.  They  should  be  watered  frequently, 
and  as  they  drink  very  slowly  they  should  not  be  rushed  when 
they  are  drinking.  As  a  rule,  mules  will  not  consume  more 
than  1  pound  of  concentrates  and  1^  pounds  of  roughage  per 
100  pounds  of  live  weight  in  a  day.  In  general,  the  same  kinds 
of  rations  that  are  adapted  for  the  feeding  of  draft  horses  are 
suitable  for  the  feeding  of  mules.  A  satisfactory  ration  for 
mules  is  3  parts  of  corn,  2  parts  of  oats,  and  1  part  of  wheat 
bran,  if  fed  in  connection  with  grass,  clover,  or  alfalfa  hay. 
Mules  arc  very  fond  of  com  fodder,  and,  if  they  are  not  worked, 


34  PONIES,  ASSES,  AND  MULES  §  40 

can  winter  on  it  alone.  Young,  growing  mules,  mules  that  are 
being  fattened  for  market,  and  mules  that  are  being  worked 
should  receive  concentrates  in  addition  to  all  the  roughage 
that  they  will  eat.  Some  mule  raisers,  while  fattening  their 
mules,  feed  blackstrap  molasses  extensively  to  secure  a  fine 
coat  of  hair. 


NDEX 


Note.— All  items  in  this  index  refer  to  the  section  (see  the  preface)  and  then  to  the  page  of 
the  section;  thus,  in  "Action  in  horses,  §37,  plO,"  means  that  matter  relating  to  action  in  horses 
will  be  found  on  page  10,  of  section  37. 


Action  in  horses,  §37,  plO. 

in  horses,  Examination  of,  §37,  p38. 

in  horses,  Judging,  §37,  p20. 
Advertising  of  stallions,  §39,  p8. 
African  type  of  horse,  §36,  p5. 
Age  for  breeding  of  sheep,  §32,  p31. 

for  breeding  of  sows,  §30,  p8. 

in  horses,  §37,  pll. 

in  horses,  Estimating,  §37,  p39. 

of  sheep,  Determining,  §34,  p2. 

to  market  hogs,  §29,  plO. 
American  Merino  sheep,  §31,  p6. 

ponies,  §40,  pl4. 

Saddle  horse,  §36,  p20. 

Trotter  horse,  §36,  p29. 
Anatomy  of  the  horse,  §37,  p3. 
Andalusian  jacks,  §40,  p20. 
Animal  by-products  as  swine  feed,  §29,  p6. 
Application  for  registry  for  sheep,  §32,  p42. 
Arab  horse,  §36,  p9. 
Ardennais  horse,  §36,  p61. 
Artificial  impregnation  of  mares,  §38,  pl9. 

insemination  of  mares,  §38,  pl9. 
Artillery  horses,  §36,  p89. 
Asses,  §40,  pl7. 

Breeds  of,  §40,  pl9. 

Care  and  management  of,  §40,  p21. 

Uses  of,  §40,  pl9. 
Assisting  ewe  in  parturition,  §32,  p45. 


Bacon  hogs,  Rations  for,  §29,  pl5. 

type  of  swine,  §28,  p3. 

type  of  swine,  Breeds  of,  §28,  p28. 
Balky  horses,  Training  of,  §39,  p32. 
Barley  as  feed  for  sheep,  §33,  p36. 
Barn,  Fanciers'  horse,  §35,  pl8. 
Barns,  Artificial  light  for  horse.  §35,  p45. 

Asphalt  floor  for  horse,  §35,  p43. 

Basement  horse,  §35.  p21. 


Barns,  Brick  floor  for  horse,  §35,  p43. 

Brick  walls  for  horse,  §35,  p31. 

Cement-block  wall  for  horse,  §35,  p30. 

Clay  floor  for  horse,  §35,  p40. 

Combination    carriage     house     and     horse, 
§35,  pl6. 

Concrete  floor  for  horse,  §35,  p41. 

Concrete  walls  for  horse,  §35,  p31. 

for  breeding  horses,  §35,  p6. 

for  brood  mares  and  colts,  §35,  pll. 

for  stallions,  §35,  p9. 

Galvanized-iron  roof  for  horse,  §35,  p.38. 

General-purpose  horse,  §35,  p3. 

Handling  feed  in  horse,  §35,  p49. 

Handling  manure  in  horse,  §35,  p.54. 

Horse  sale,  §35,  pl3. 

Prepared  paper  roofs  for  horse,  §35,  p39. 

Sand  floors  for  horse,  §35,  p40. 

Sheep,  §33,  p5. 

Sites  for  horse,  §35,  p23. 

Slate-shingle  roofs  for  horse,  §35,  p38. 

Stone  floors  for  horse,  §35,  p44. 

Stone  walls  for  horse,  §35,  p29. 

Tile-shingle  roofs  for  horse,  §35,  p38. 

Town-lot  horse,  §35,  pl9. 

Ventilation  for  horse,  §35,  p45. 

Windows  for  horse,  §35,  p44. 

Wooden  floors  for  horse,  §35,  p41. 

Wooden-shingle  roofs  for  horse,  §35,  p37. 

Wooden  walls  for  horse,  §35,  pp27,  31. 
Barrow,  Score  card  for  bacon-type,  §29,  p21. 

Score  card  for  fat,  §29,  p20. 
Basement  horse  barns,  §35,  p21. 
Bath,  Young  pigs  sun,  §27,  p29. 
Beans  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p37. 

as  swine  feed,  §20,  po. 
Bedding  for  farrowing  nest,  §30,  pl4. 
Belgian  horse,  §36.  p72. 

Berkshire    standard     of    excellence,    §28,    p7; 
§29,  p22. 

swine,  $2*.  pi. 


243 — 15 


vn 


vm 


INDEX 


B'ind  spavin,  §37,  p35, 
Bloom  in  swine,  §30,  p21. 
Blue  Bull  horse  family,  §36,  p32. 
Boar,  Selection  of  pure-bred  herd,  §30,  p5. 
Boars,  Care  of,  §30,  p7. 
Castration  of,  §30,  p24. 
Feeding  of  herd,  §29,  pl6. 
Management  of,  §30,  p7. 
Bog  spavin,  §37,  p36. 
Boil.  Shoe,  §37,  p31. 
Bone  spavin,  §37,  p3.r>. 
Bonham  swine  house,  §27,  p3. 
Boulonais  horse,  §36,  p60. 
Bowed  tendon,  §37,  p32. 
Bran  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p37. 
Breed  in  horses,  §37,  pl3. 
Breeding  condition  of  mares,  §38,  pl6. 
crate.  Swine,  §27,  p40. 
horses,  Barns  for,  §35,  p6. 
horses,  Guaranteeing  of,  §39,  p23. 
mares,  Feeding  of,  §38,  pl6. 
mares,  Selection  of,  §38,  pll. 
of  ewes.  Time  for,  §32,  p.32. 
of  jacks  to  mares,  §40,  pl9. 
of  sheep,  Age  for,  §32,  p31. 
of  sows  after  farrowing,  §30,  pl6. 
of  sows,  Age  for,  §30,  pS. 
season,  Care  of  stallions  during,  §39,  p6. 
season,  Care  of  stallions  out  of,  §39,  p4. 
season  for  stallion,  Length  of,  §39,  p7. 
Selection  of  sows  for,  §30,  p9. 
sheep  class,  §34,  p26. 
sheep,  Condition  of,  §32,  p32. 
swine,  Feeding  of,  §29,  pl6. 
Breeds  of  asses,  §40,  pl9. 

of  bacon-type  swine,  §28,  p28. 
of  horses,  §36,  pp9,  53. 
of  horses,  Draft-type,  §36,  p53. 
of  lard  type  of  swine,  §28,  p4. 
of  sheep,  §31,  p6. 
of  swine,  §28,  p4. 
Breton  horse,  §36,  p60. 
Bronco  ponies,  §40,  pl6. 
Brood  mares  and  colts,  Barns  for,  §35,  pll. 

sow,  Selection  of  pure-bred,  §30,  p6. 
Brush-covered  swine  shed,  §27,  p26. 
Buck-kneed  horses,  §37,  pl6. 
Bucks,  sheep  subclass,  §34,  p25. 
Burrows,  §40,  pl7. 


Cab  horses,  §36,  p99. 
Cabbage  as  feed  for  sheep,  §33,  p31. 
Calf-kneed  horses,  §37,  pl6. 
Capped  hock,  §37,  p37. 

d  management  of  asses,  §40,  p21. 
of  boars,  §30,  p7. 


Care  of  chilled  lambs,  §32,  p47. 

of  colts,  §39,  p9. 

of  draft  horses,  §38,  p7. 

of  driving  horses,  §38,  plO. 

of  ewes  for  early  lambs,  §34,  p21. 

of  ewes  with  suckling  lambs,  §34,  p8. 

of  horse  paddocks,  §35,  pfiO. 

of  hothouse  lambs,  §34,  p22. 

of  lambs,  §34,  pll. 

of  mares  after  parturition,  §38,  p28. 

of  mares  after  service,  §38,  pl8. 

of  newly  born  foals,  §38,  p29. 

of  nursing  ewes,  §32,  p47. 

of  pregnant  ewes,  §32,  p47;  §34,  p5. 

of  pregnant  mares,  §38,  p27. 

of  rams,  §34,  p5. 

of  saddle  horses,  §38,  plO. 

ot  show  swine,  §30,  p21. 

of  sows  after  service,  §30,  p9. 

of  sows,  General,  §30,  p8. 

of  stallions  during  breeding  season,  §39,  pO. 

of  stallions  out  of  breeding  season,  §39,  p4. 
Carpet  wools,  §34,  p29. 
Carriage-horse  class,  §36,  p89. 

-horse  type,  §36,  p". 

houses,  §35,  p22. 

houses     and     horse     barns.     Combination, 
§35,  pl6. 
Castration  of  aged  rams,  §34,  pl6. 

of  boars,  §30,  p24. 

of  colts,  §39,  pi 6. 

of  lambs,  §34,  pl6. 
Catalonian  jacks,  §40,  p20. 
Catching  of  sheep,  §32,  pi. 
Cavalry  horses,  §36,  pl09. 
Charcoal  for  swine,  §29,  p7. 
Cheshire  standard  of  excellence,  §28,  p24. 

swine,  §28,  p24. 
Chester  White  standard  of  excellence,  §28,  p20. 

White  swine,  §28,  pl8. 
Cheviot  scale  of  points,  §32,  p27. 

sheep,  §31,  p30. 
Chilled  lambs,  Care  of,  §32,  p47. 
Chunk-horse  class,  §36,  p84. 
Chute  for  swine,  Loading,  §27,  p43. 
Circular  swine  house,  §27,  p23. 
Classes  and  grades  of  sheep,  Market,  §34,  p25. 
Clay  horse  family,  §36,  p32. 
Cleveland  Bay  horse,  §36,  p49. 
Clothing  wools,  §34,  p29. 
Clydesdale  horse,  §36,  p61. 
Coach-horse  class,  §36,  p98. 
-horse  type,  §36,  p7. 

horse,  French,  §36.  p43. 

horse,  German,  §36,  p46. 

horse,  Yorkshire,  §36,  p50. 
Coarse-wool  breeds  of  sheep,  §31,  p36. 


INDEX 


IX 


Cob  horses,  §36,  p9S. 
Cold-climate  swine  house,  §27,  pl6. 
Color  in  horses,  §37,  pi  1. 
Colts,  Barns  for  brood  mares  and,  §35,  pll. 
Care  of,  §3!),  pit. 
Castration  of,  §30,  pl6. 
Feeding  of,  §39,  pp9,  12,  13. 
Training  of,  §39,  pp25,  27,  29.  31. 
Combing  wools,  §34,  p29. 
Concentrates  for  sheep.  §33,  p35. 
Condition  in  breeding  sheep,  §32,  p32. 

in  horses,  §37,  plO. 
Conformation  in  horses,  §37,  p7. 

Judging  horse,  §37,  pl3. 
Contracted  heels,  §37,  p.33. 
Coolidge  swine  house,  §27,  p4. 
Coon-footed  horses,  §37,  p9. 
Corn  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p3o. 

silage  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p33. 
Cots,  Swine,  §27,  pi. 
Cotswold  ewe  scale  of  points,  §32,  p29. 
ram  scale  of  points,  §32,  p30. 
sheep,  §31,  p40. 
Cotton  mules,  §40,  p27. 
Cottonseed  meal  as  swine  feed,  §29,  po. 
Cow  hocks  in  horses,  §37,  p20. 
Cracks,  Quarter,  §37,  p34. 

Sand,  §37,  p34. 
Crate,  Swine  breeding,  §27,  p40. 

Swine  shipping,  §27,  p41. 
Curb,  §37,  p36. 

D 

Dairy  products  as  swine  feed,  §29,  p7. 
Dead-sheep  class,  §34,  p26. 
Delaine  Merino  sheep,  §31,  plO. 

Merino  standard  of  excellence,   §32,  p21. 
Delivery-wagon  horses,  §36,  p88. 
Development  of  swine,  Origin  and,  §30,  pi. 
Dipping  of  sheep,  §34,  pl8. 

outfit  for  sheep,  §33,  p20. 

vat  for  swine,  §27,  p36. 
Diseases,  Resistance  of  mules  to,  §40,  p22. 
Dislocation  of  patella  in  horses,  §37,  p35. 
Disposition  in  horses,  §37,  pl2. 
Docking  of  lambs,  §34,  pl4. 

pincers  for  sheep,  §33,  p22. 
Dogs  as  sheep  herders,  §34,  pl7. 

Protection  of  sheep  against,  §34,  pi 7. 
Donkeys,  §40,  pl7. 
Dorset  scale  of  points,  §32,  p26. 

sheep,  §31,  p28. 
Draft-horse  class,  §36,  p77. 

-horse  type,  §36,  p8. 

horses,  Care  of,  §38,  p7. 

horses.  Feeding  of,  §38,  p3. 

horse,  French,  §36,  p60. 


Draft  horses,  Heavy,  §36,  p79. 

horses,  Light,  §36,  p79. 

horses,  Watering  of,  §38,  p6. 

mules,  §40,  p29. 

-type  breeds  of  horses,  §36,  p53. 
Dried  beet  pulp  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p37. 

molasses  beet  pulp  as  sheep  feed.  §33,  p37. 
Driving  horses.  Care  of,  §38,  plO. 

horses,  Feeding  of,  §38,  p8. 

horses,  Watering  of.  §38,  p9. 
Dry  roughage  for  sheep,  §33,  p34. 
Duroc-Jersey  standard  of  excellence,  §28,  pl(i. 

-Jersey  swine,  §28,  pi  ">. 

E 

Eastern-chunk  horses,  §36,  p84. 
Education  of  horses,  §37,  pl2. 
Endurance  of  mules,  §40,  p22. 
Essex  swine,  §28,  p27. 
Ewe  in  parturition,  Assisting,  §32,  p45. 
neck  in  horses,  §37,  p25. 
to  own  a  lamb,  Teaching  a,  §32,  p48. 
Ewes  and  lambs,  Pasturing  of,  §34,  pll. 
Care  of  nursing,  §32,  p47. 
Care  of  pregnant,  §32,  p47;  §34,  po. 
Feeding  of  pregnant,  §34,  p6. 
Flushing  of,  §34,  p21. 
for  early  lambs,  Care  of,  §34,  p21. 
Gestation  table  for,  §32,  p37. 
Rations  for  pregnant,  §34,  p7. 
sheep  subclass,  §34,  p2.5. 
Signs  of  approaching  parturition  in,  §32,  p4o. 
Signs  of  pregnancy  in,  §32,  p45. 
Time  for  breeding.  §32,  p32. 
with  suckling  lambs.  Care  of,  §34,  p8. 
with  suckling  lambs,  Rations  for,  §34,  p9. 
Exercise  for  sows  during  pregnancy,  §30,  pl4. 
Exhibition  swine.  Classification  of.  §29,  pis. 
Export  chunk  horses,  §36,  p84. 

sheep  class,  §34,  p26. 
Express  horses,  §36,  p88 


Farm  chunk  horses,  §36,  p84. 

mules,  §40,  p29. 
Farrowing,  Best  months  for,  §30,  pl4. 

box,  §27,  p27. 

house,  §27,  p27. 

nest,  Bedding  for,  §30,  pl4. 

pen,  §27,  p27. 
Fat  hogs.  Radons  for,  §29,  pl2. 
Fattening  hogs.  Succulent  feed  for.   §29,  pl3 

lambs,  Rations  for,  §34,  pl3. 

of  hogs,  Places  for,  §29,  pll. 

of  hogs,  Time  of  year  for,  §29,  plO. 

of  lambs,  §34.  pi 2. 

swine,  Gains  in  weight  made  in,  §28.  pll. 


INDEX 


Feed  In  horse  barns,  Handling,  §35,  p49. 

rack.  Sheep.  §33,  pl8. 

room.  Swine,  §27,  p27. 

truck  for  swine,  §27,  p41. 
Feeder-sheep  class,  §34,  p26. 
Feeding  of  breeding  mares,  §38,  plO. 

of  breeding  swine,  §29,  plO. 

of  brood  sows,  §29,  pl7. 

of  colts,  §39,  pp9,  12,  13. 

of  draft  horses,  §38,  p3. 

of  driving  horses,  §38,  pS. 

of  herd  boars,  §29,  pl6. 

of  hogs,  Range,  §29,  pl6. 

of  mares  after  parturition,  §38,  p30. 

of  mules,  §40,  p33. 

of  pregnant  ewes,  §34,  p6. 

of  pregnant  mares,  §38,  p22. 

of  saddle  horses,  §38,  p8. 

of  stallions,  §39,  pp3,  4. 

of  suckling  lambs,  §34,  pl9. 

of  swine  for  pork  production,  §29,  p9. 

platform.  Swine,  §27,  p24. 

Swine,  §29,  pi. 

utensils,  Swine,  §27,  p32. 
Feeds,  Sheep,  §33,  p28. 

Swine,  §29,  p3. 
Fences  for  horse  paddocks,  §3.5,  p56. 

for  swine  lots  and  pastures,  §27,  p30. 
Fine-wool  breeds  of  sheep,  §31,  p6. 
Fire  horses,  §36,  p89. 
Fistula,  §37,  p31. 

Five-gaited  saddle  horses,  §30,  plOS. 
Flanders,  §37,  p37. 
Fleece,  Sheep,  §34,  p29. 
Flushing  of  ewes,  §34,  p21. 
Foal,  Insuring  of,  §39,  p8. 
Foals,  Care  of  newly  born,  §38,  p29. 
Forceps,  Lamb,  §33,  p23. 
Forequarters  in  horse  judging,  Examination  of, 

§37,  pp25,  30. 
Foundations,  Horse-barn,  §35,  p25. 
Founder,  §37,  p33. 
French  Coach  horse,  §36,  p43. 

Draft  horse,  §36,  p60. 


General  appearance  in  horses,  §37,  pi 2. 

-purpose  swine  house,  §27,  p7. 
German  Coach  horse,  §36,  p46. 
Gestation  period  in  mares,  §38,  p22. 

period  in  sows,  §30,  p9. 

table  for  ewes,  §32,  p37. 

table  for  mares,  §38,  p23. 

table  for  sows,  §30,  plO. 
Grain  by-products  as  swine  feed,  §29   p4. 
Grains  as  swine  feed,  §29,  p3. 
Grease  disease,  §37,  p37. 


Gregory-farm  swine  house,  §27,  pl2. 
Guaranteeing  of  breeding  horses,  §39,  p23. 

H 

Hackney  horses,  §36,  p38. 
Halter-pulling  horses,  Training  of,  §39,  p32. 
Hambletonian  horse  family,  §36,  p31. 
Hampshire  sheep,  §31,  p25. 

sheep  scale  of  points,  §32,  p25. 

sheep,  standard  of  excellence,  §32,  p25. 

'swine,  §28,  p.32. 

swine,  standard  of  excellence,  §28,  p33. 
Hand  as  unit  of  measurement,  §36,  p4. 
Handling  horses  in  show  ring,  §39,  pl9. 

of  service  stallions,  §39,  po. 

of  sheep,  §32,  p3. 
Hay  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p.34. 

as  ^wine  feed,  §29,  p6. 
Heat  in  mares,  Period  of,  §38,  pl4. 

in  sows,  Appearance  of,  §30,  p8. 
Heavy  draft  horses,  §36,  p79. 

market  horses,  Score  card  for,  §37,  p5. 
Heels,  Contracted,  §37,  p33. 
Herd  boar,  Selection  of  pure-bred,  §30,  p5. 
Herdsman  headquarters,  Swine,  §27,  p26. 
Hillside  swine  house,  §27,  p9. 
Hinny,  Definition  of,  §40,  p21. 
Hip  sweeny  in  horses,  §37,  p35. 
Hipped  condition  in  horses,  §37,  p35. 
Hock,  Capped,  §37,  p37. 
Hog,  Location  of  parts  of  a,  §28,  p2. 

wallow,  §27,  p37. 
Hogs,  Age  to  market,  §29,  plO. 

Range  feeding  of,  §29,  pl6. 

Rations  for  bacon,  §29,  pi 5. 

Rations  for  fat,  §29,  pl2. 

Succulent  feed  for  fattening,  §29,  pl3. 

Treatment  of  overheated,  §30,  p25. 
Horse,  African  type  of,  §36,  p5. 

American  Saddle,  §36,  p20. 

American  Trotter,  §36,  p29. 

Anatomy  of  the,  §37,  p3. 

Arab,  §36,  p.9 

Ardennais,  §36,  p61. 

barn,  Fanciers',  §35,  pl8. 

-barn  foundations,  §35,  p25. 

-barn  site,  Drainage  of,  §35,  p24. 

-barn  site,  Elevation  of,  §35,  p23. 

-barn  site,  Exposure  of,  §35,  p24. 

-barn  site,  Soil  requirements  of,  §35,  p24. 

barns,  §35,  pi. 

barns,  Artificial  light  for,  §35,  p45. 

barns.  Asphalt  floors  for,  $35,  p43. 

barns,  Basement,  §35,  p21. 

barns,  Brick  floors  for,  §3."i,  pi:?. 

barns,  Brick  walls  for,  §35,  p3l. 

barns,  Cement-block  walls  for,  §35,  p30. 


INDEX 


XI 


Horse  barns,  Clay  floors  for,  §3.5,  p4(>. 

barns,    Combination    carriage    houses    and, 

§35,  pl6. 
barns.  Concrete  floors  for,  §35,  pi  1. 
barns,  Concrete  walls  for,  §35,  p31. 
barns.  Galvani/.ed-iron  roofs  for,  §35,  p:(S. 
barns.  General-purpose,  §.'(!,  p3. 
barns.  Handling  feed  in,  §35,  p49, 

barns.  Handling  manure  in,  §:>5,  |,.",|. 

barns,  Prepared  paper  roofs  for,  §35,  p39, 

barns,  Sand  floor  for,  §35.  p40. 

barns,  Sites  for,  §35,  p23. 

barns.  Slate-shingle  roofs  for,  ^l~>,  p38. 

bams.  Stone  floors  for,  §35,  p44. 

barns,  Stone  walls  for,  §35,  p29. 

barns.  Tile-shingle  roofs  for,  §35,  p38. 

barns,  Town-lot,  §35,  pl9. 

barns,  Ventilation  for,  §35.  pi.".. 

barns,  Windows  for,  $35,  p44. 

barns.  Wooden  floors  for,  §35,  p41. 

barns,  Wooden-shingle  roofs  for,  §35,  p37. 

barns.  Wooden  walls  for,  §35,  p27. 

Belgian,  §30,  p72. 

Boulonais,  §30,  pOO. 

Breton,  §36,  p60. 

class,  Saddle-,  §30,  pl08. 

class.  Wagon-,  §36.  p85. 

Cleveland  Bay,  §30,  p49. 

Clydesdale,  §36,  pOl. 

conformation,  Judging,  §37,  pl3. 

Eastern-chunk,  §36,  p84. 

family.  Blue  Bull,  §36,  p32. 

family,  Clay,  §30,  p32. 

family,  Hambletonian,  §30,  p31. 

family,  Mambrino.  §30,  p31. 

family,  Morgan,  §30.  p32. 

family.  Pilot,  §30.  p.32. 

French  Coach,  §30,  p43. 

French  Draft,  §30,  p60. 

German  Coach,  §30,  p46, 

judging,  Detailed  examination  in,  §37,  p23. 

judging,     Examination     of    body     in,     §37, 

pp26,  31. 
judging,    Examination    of    forequarters    in, 

§37,  pp25,  30. 
judging,    Examination  of  head  and  neck  in, 

§37,  pp23,  30. 
judging.    Examination    of    hindquarters    in, 

§37,  pp26,  34. 
judging,  General  examination  in,  §37,  pl3. 
Location  of  parts  of  a,  §30,  p2. 
Morgan,  §3G,  p25. 
Nivernais,  §36,  p61. 
Norse  type  of,  §36,  p5. 
Orloff  Trotter,  §36.  p37. 
paddocks.  Care  of,  §35.  pOO.     ' 
paddocks,  Fences  for,  §35,  p56. 


Horses,  paddocks,  Shade  for,  §35,  pGO 
paddocks,  Size  and  location  of,  §35,  p55. 
paddocks,  Water  supply  for,  §35,  p59. 
Percheron,  §30,  p53. 
Picardy,  §30,  pOl. 
Prehistoric,  §30.  p5. 

nle  liartis,  §35,  j>  1 ."{. 
Suffolk.  §30,  ,,71. 

Thoroughbred,  {36,  pl3. 

type.  Carriage-,  §30,  p7. 

type,  Coach-,  §36,  p7. 

type.  Draft-,  §36,  p8. 

type.  Roadster-,  §36,  p6. 

Yorkshire  Coach,  §36.  poO. 

Horses,  Action  in,  §37,  plO. 

Age  in,  §37,  pll. 

Artillery,  §30,  p89. 

Barns  for  breeding,  §35,  p6. 

Breed  in,  §37,  pl3. 

Breeds  of,  §36,  pp9,  53. 

Buck-kneed,  §37,  pl6. 

Cab,  §36,  p99. 

Calf-kneed,  §37,  pl6. 

Care  of  draft,  §38,  p7. 

Care  of  driving,  §38,  plO. 

Care  of  saddle,  §38,  plO. 

Cavalry,  §30.  plot). 

Chunk.  §30,  p84. 

Cob,  §36,  p98. 

Color  in,  §37,  pll. 

Condition  in,  §37,  plO. 
,  Conformation  in,  §37,  p7. 

Coon-footed,  §37,  p9. 

Cow  hocks  in,  §37,  p20. 

Deli  very- wagon,  §36,  p88. 

Dislocation  of  patella  in,  §37,  p35. 

Disposition  in,  §37,  pl2. 

Draft-type  breeds  of.  §36,  p53. 

Education  of,  §37.  pi 2. 

Estimating  age  in,  §37,  p39. 

Ewe  neck  in,  §37,  p25. 

Examination  of  action  in,  §37.  p38 

Examination  of  wind  in,  §37,  p39. 

Export-chunk,  §36,  p84. 

Express,  §30,  p8& 

Farm-chunk,  §30,  p84. 

Feeding  of  draft,  §38,  p3. 

Feeding  of  driving,  §38,  p8. 

Feeding  of  saddle,  §38,  p8. 

Fire,  §36,  p89. 

Five-gaited  saddle,  §36,  pl08. 

for  market,  Fitting,  §39,  p20. 

for  show,  Fitting,  §39,  pl6. 

for  unsoundness,  Examination  of,  §37,  p27. 

General  appearance  in,  §37,  pl2. 

Guaranteeing  of  breeding,  §39,  p23. 

Hackney,  §36,  p38. 


Xll 


INDEX 


Horses,  Heavy  draft.  §36,  p79. 

Hip  sweeny  in,  §37,  p35. 

Hipped  condition  in.  §37,  p35. 

Hunter,  §36,  pl09. 

in  show  ring.  Handling,  §39,  pl9. 

Judging  action  in,  §37,  p20. 

Judging  quality  in,  §37,  p20. 

Judging  style  in,  §37,  p20. 

Judging  temperament  in,  §37,  p22. 

Knee-sprung.  §37,  pl6. 

Light  draft,  §36,  p79. 

Market  classes  of,  §36,  p77. 

Market  requirements  for,  §37,  p7. 

Marketing  of.  §39.  p21. 

Order  of  appearance  of  teeth  in,  §37,  p41. 

Overheating  in,  §39,  p33 

Park,  §36.  p99. 

Quality  in,  §37,  plO. 

Recording    of     transfer    of    ownership     of, 
§39,  p3S. 

Recording  pedigrees  of,  §39,  p34. 

Registration  of,  §39,  p34.         ' 

Runabout,  §36,  pl03. 

Score  card  for  heavy  market,  §37,  po. 

Score  card  for  light  market,  §37,  p4. 

Sex  in,  §37,  pl2. 

Shipping  of,  §39,  p24. 

Shire,  §35,  p65. 

Sickle  hocks  in,  §37,  pl6. 

Soundness  in,  §37,  p7. 

Southern  chunk,  §36,  p85. 

Splay-footed,  §37.  p21. 

Table  of  market  classes  and  subclasses  of, 
§36,  p78. 

Three-gaited  saddle,  §36,  pl09. 

Training  of  balky,  §39,  p32. 

Training  of  halter-pulling,  §39,  p32. 

Training  of  vicious,  §39,  p32. 

Types  of,  §36,  po. 

Use  of  score  cards  in  judging,  §37,  p6. 

Watering  of  draft,  §38,  p6. 

Watering  of  driving,  §38,  p9. 

Watering  of  saddle,  §38,  p9. 
Hothouse  lambs,  sheep  class,  §34,  p26. 

lambs,  §34,  p20. 

lambs,  Care  of.  §34,  p22. 

lambs  for  market,  Preparing,  §34,  p23. 
Hunter  horses,  §36,  pl09. 
Hurdles  for  swine,  §27,  p43. 

I 
Illinois     Experiment     Station     swine     house, 

§27.  pl9. 
Impregnation  of  mares.  Artificial,  §38,  pl9. 
Impregnator,  §38,  p20. 
Indian  ponies,  §40,  pl7. 
Insemination  of  mares.  Artificial,  §38,  pl9. 
Insuring  of  foal,  §39 ,  p8. 


Jacks,  Andalusian,  §40,  p20. 

Catalonian.  §40,  p20. 

Majorca,  §40.  p20. 

Maltese.  §40.  p20. 

Poitou.  §40,  p20. 

to  mares.  Breeding  of,  §40,  pi  9. 
Judge,  Qualifications  of  swine,  §29.  pl8. 
Judging  action  in  horses,  §37,  p20. 

Definition  of  horse,  §37,  pi. 

Detailed  examination  in  horse,  §37,  p23. 

Examination  of  body  in  horse,  §37.  pp26.  34. 

Examination  of  forequarters  in  horse,   §37, 
pp25,  30. 

Examination    of   head    and    neck   in    horse. 
§37,  pp23,  30. 

Examination     of     hindquarters     in     horse, 
§37,  pp26,  34. 

General  examination  in  horse,  §37,  pl3. 

horse  conformation,  §37,  pl3. 

horses,  Use  of  score  cards  in,  §37,  p6. 

quality  in  horses,  §37,  p20. 

Sheep,  §32,  pi. 

sheep,  Detailed  examination  in,  §32,  p6. 

sheep.  General  examination  in,  §32,  po. 

sheep,  Use  of  score  card  in,  §32,  p20. 

style  in  horses,  §37,  p20. 

Swine,  §29,  pl8. 

temperament  in  horses,  §37,  p22. 

K 

Kale  as  feed  for  sheep,  §33,  p31. 
Knee-sprung  horses,  §37,  pl6. 


Lamb,  Care  of  chilled,  §32,  p47. 

forceps,  §33,  p23. 

its  first  meal.  Giving  a  weak,  §32,  p46. 

Teaching  a  ewe  to  own  a,  §32,  p48. 

Weaning  of,  §34,  pll. 
Lambs,  Care  of,  §34,  pll. 

Care  of  ewes  for  early,  §34,  p21. 

Care  of  ewes  with  suckling.  §34.  pS. 

Care  of  hothouse,  §34,  p22. 

Castration  of,  §34,  pl6. 

Docking  of,  §34.  pl4. 

Fattening  of,  §34,  pl2. 

Feeding  of  suckling,  §34,  plO. 

for  market,  Preparing  hothouse,  §34,  p23. 

Hothouse,  §34,  p20. 

Marketing  sheep  and,  §34,  p24. 

Pasturing  of  ewes  and,  §34,  pll. 

Rations  for  fattening,  §34,  pl3. 

sheep  subclass,  §34,  p25. 
Laminitis,  §37,  p33. 
Lari  production,  Feeding  of  swine  for,  §29,  p9. 


INDEX 


xin 


Lard  type  of  swine,  §28,  p2. 

type  of  swine,  Breeds  of,  §2s,  p4. 
Large  Yorkshire  standard  of  excel lence,  |28,  f>80. 

Yorkshire  swine,  §28,  p28. 
Leading  a  sheep,  §32,  p4. 
Leicester  sheep,  §31,  p27. 

Length  of  breeding  season  for  stallions,  §  ;'.i   p7. 
Light  draft  horses,  §36,  p79. 

market  horses,  Score  card  for,  §37,  p4. 
Lincoln  scale  of  points,  §32,  p28. 

sheep,  §31,  p36. 
Linseed  meal  as  swine  feed,  §29,  p.3. 
Litters,  Marking  of  swine,  §30,  pl8 
Loading  chute  for  swine,  §27,  p43. 
Location  of  horse  paddocks.  Size  and,  §3.3,  p55, 

of  parts  of  a  hog,  §28,  p2. 
Logger  horses,  §30,  p79. 
Lovejoy  swine  house,  §27,  pi. 

M 

Majorca  jacks,  §40,  p20. 
Malanders,  §37,  p37. 
Maltese  jacks,  §40,  p20. 
Mambrino  horse  family,  §36,  p31. 
Management  of  boars,  §30,  p7. 

of  sows,  §30,  p8. 

of  sows  after  pigs  are  weaned,  §30,  pl7. 
Manure  in  horse  barns,  Handling,  §3.3,  p.54. 
Mares  after  parturition,  Care  of,  §38,  p28. 

after  parturition.  Feeding  of,  §38,  p30. 

after  service,  Care  of,  §38,  plS. 

and  colts,  Barns  for  brood,  §35,  pll. 

Artificial  impregnation  of,  §38,  pl9. 

Artificial  insemination  of,  §38,  pl9. 

Breeding  condition  of,  §38,  pl6. 

Breeding  of  jacks  to,  §40,  pl9. 

Care  of  pregnant,  §38,  p27. 

Feeding  of  breeding,  §38,  pl6. 

Feeding  of  pregnant,  §3S,  p22. 

Gestation  table  for,  §38,  p23. 

Period  of  gestation  in,  §38,  p22. 

Period  of  heat  in,  §38,  pl4. 

Productive  period  of,  §38,  pl2. 

Season  of  year  to  breed,  §38,  pl4. 

Selection  of  breeding,  §38,  pll. 

Serving  of,  §38,  pl8. 

Signs  of  pregnancy  in,  §3$.  p22. 
Market  classes  and  grades  of  sheep,  §34.  p25. 

classes  and    subclasses  of   horses,  Table   of, 
§36,  p78. 

classes  of  horses,  §36,  p77. 

requirements  for  horses,  §37,  p7. 

requirements  for  mules,  §40,  p23. 
Marketing  of  horses,  §39,  p21. 

of  sheep  and  lambs,  §34,  p24. 

of  wool,  §34,  p42. 
Marking  of  swine  litters,  §30,  pl8. 


Molium-wool  breeds  of  sheep,  §31,  pl6. 
Merino  sheep,  American,  §31,  p6. 

sheep,  Delaine,  §31,  plO. 
Michigan  pad,  §37,  p37. 
Mild-climate  swine  house,  §27,  pl7. 
Mineral  matter  for  swine,  §29,  p7. 
Mining  mules,  §40,  p24. 
Morgan  horse  family,  §36,  p32. 

horses,  §36,  p25. 
Mule,  Definition  of,  §40,  p21. 

-foot  swine,  §28,  p21. 

-foot  swine,  standard  of  excelltnce,  §28   p22. 

raising.  §40,  p32. 
Mules,  Cotton,  §40,  p27. 

Draft,  §40,  p29. 

Endurance  of,  §40,  p22. 

Farm,  §40,  p29. 

Feeding  of,  §40,  p33. 

Influence  of  sex  on  salability  of,  §40,  p22. 

Market  requirements  for,  §40,  p23. 

Mining,  §40,  p24. 

Sugar,  §40,  p27. 

Temperament  of,  §40.  p21. 

to  diseases,  Resistance  of,  §40,  p22 

Use  of,  §40,  p23. 
Mutton  sheep  class,  §34,  p25. 

type  of  sheep,  §31,  pp2,  4. 

type  of  sheep,  Score  card  for,  §32,  pl8. 

N 

Nivemais  horse,  §36,  p61. 
Noils,  Explanation  of,  §34,  p29. 
Norse  type  of  horse,  §36,  p5. 
Nursing  ewes,  Care  of,  §32.  p47. 

O 

Oats  as  feed  for  sheep,  §33,  p36. 

Occult  spavin,  §37,  p35. 

Oil  meal  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p38. 

Open-front  swine  shed,  §27,  p24. 

Origin  and  development  of  swine,  §30,  pi. 

Orloff  Trotter  horse,  §36,  p37. 

Overheated  hogs.  Treatment  of,  §30,  p25. 

Overheating  in  horses,  §39,  p33. 

Ownership  of  horses,  Recording  of  transfer  of, 

§39,  p38. 
Oxford  Down  scale  of  points,  §32,  p24. 
Down  sheep,  §31,  p21. 


Pad,  Michigan,  §37,  p37. 
Paddocks,  Care  of  horse,  §35,  p60. 

Fences  for  horse,  §35,  p56. 

Shade  for  horse,  §35,  p60. 

Size  and  location  of  horse,  §35,  p55. 

Water  supply  for  horse,  §35,  p59. 
Panels  for  sheep  pens,  §33,  p20. 


XIV 


INDEX 


Park  horses,  §36,  p99. 

Parturition,  Assisting  ewe  in,  §32,  p45. 

Care  of  mares  after,  §38.  p28. 

Feeding  of  mares  after,  §38,  p30. 

in  ewes.  Signs  of  approaching,  §32,  p45 

in  mares.  §38.  p2S 
Pasture  for  swine,  §27,  p29. 
Pasturing  of  ewes  and  lambs.  §34,  pll. 
Patella  in  horses.  Dislocation  of,  §37,  p35. 
Pea  vines  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p34. 
Peas  as  sheep  feed,  §33.  pp34,  36. 

as  swine  feed,  §29.  p.5. 
Pedigrees  of  horse,  Recording,  §39,  p34. 

Recording  of  sheep,  §32.  p42. 

Recording  of  swine.  §30,  p35. 
Pens,  Swine.  §27.  p29. 
Percheron  horse,  §36,  p53. 
Period  of  gestation  in  mares,  §38,  p22. 
Picardy  horses,  §36,  p61. 
Pig  eating  among  sows.  §30,  pl6. 
Pigs  after  weaning.  Rations  for,  §29,  pl2. 

Ration  for  unweaned,  §29,  pl2. 
Pilot  horse  family,  §36.  p32. 
Poitou  ass.  §40.  p20. 
Poland-China  standard  of  excellence,  §2S,  pll. 

-China  swine,  §28,  p9. 
Polo  ponies,  §36,  pi  15. 
Ponies,  American,  §40,  pl4. 

Bronco,  §40,  pl6. 

Indian.  §40,  pl7. 

Polo.  §36,  pi  15. 

Shetland,  §40,  p3. 
Pony,  Welsh,  §40,  pl4. 

Pork  production,  Feeding  of  swine  for,  §29,  p9. 
Pregnancy,  Exercise  for  sows  during,  §30,  pl4. 

in  ewes,  Signs  of.  §32,  p45. 

in  mares.  Signs  of,  §38,  p22. 

in  sows.  Sign?  of,  §30,  pl4. 
Pregnant  ewes,  Care  of,  §32,  p47;   §34,  p5. 

ewes.  Feeding  of,  §34,  p6. 

ewes,  Rations  for,  §34,  p7. 

mares.  Care  of,  §38,  p27. 

mares.  Feeding  of,  §38,  p22. 
Prehistoric  horse,  §36,  p5. 
Production,  Wool,  §34,  p29. 
Protection  of  sheep  against  dogs,  §34,  pl7. 
Pumpkins  as  feed  for  sheep.  §33.  p32. 
Purchasing  of  stallions,  §39,  pi. 
Pure-bred  brood  sow,  Selection  of,  §30,  p6. 

herd  boar.  Selection  of,  §30,  po. 

sheep.  Recording  of,  §32,  p42. 

swine,  Production  of,  §30,  p2. 

Q 

Quality  in  horses.  §37,  plO. 

in  horses.  Judging,  §37,  p20. 
Quarter  cracks,  §37,  p34. 


Ram.  Care  of,  §34,  p5. 

for  flock.  Selection  of.  §34,  p3. 
Rambouillet  sheep,  §31,  pl2. 
Rams,  Castration  of  aged,  §34,  pl6. 
Range  feeding  of  hogs,  $29,  pl6. 
Rape  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p28. 
Ration  for  unweaned  pigs,  §29,  pl2. 
Rations  for  bacon  hogs,  §29,  pl5. 

for  ewes  with  suckling  lambs,  §34,  p9. 

for  fat  hogs,  §29,  pl2. 

for  fattening  lambs,  §34,  pl3. 

for  pigs  after  weaning,  §29.  pl2. 

for  pregnant  ewes,  §34,  p7. 
Recording  horse  pedigrees,  §39,  p34. 

sheep  pedigrees,  §32,  p42. 

swine  pedigrees,  §30,  p35. 

of  lease  of  boar  for  service,  §30,  p36. 

of  pure-bred  sheep,  §32,  p42. 

of  swine  pedigrees,  §30,  p35. 

of  swine  produce,  §30,  p26. 

of  transfer  of  ownership  of  horses,  §39,  p38. 

of  transfer  of  ownership  of  swine   §30.  p39. 
Records,  Keeping  of  sheep  breeding,  §32,  p36. 
Registration  of  horses,  §39.  p.34. 

of  swine,  §30,  p29. 
Registry  for  sheep.  Application  for,  §32,  p42. 

for  sheep,  Certificate  of,  §32,  p42. 
Ringbone,  §37,  p32. 
Road-horse  class,  §36,  pl03. 
Roadster-horse  class,  §36,  pl03. 

-horse  type,  §36,  p6. 
Root  crops  as  feed  for  sheep,  §33,  p31. 
Runabout  horses,  §36,  pl03. 
Rye  as  feed  for  sheep,  §33,  p33. 

S 
Saddle-horse  class,  §36,  pl08. 

horses,  American,  §36,  p20. 

horses,  Care  of,  §38,  plO. 

horses.  Feeding  of,  §38,  p8. 

horses,  Five-gaited,  §36,  plOS. 

horses,  Three-gaited,  §36,  pl09. 

horses,  Watering  of.  §38,  p9. 
Sale  barns.  Horse,  §35,  pl3. 
Sand  cracks,  §37,  p34. 

Scale  of  points  for  Shetland  pony,  §40.  pl2. 
Score  card  for  bacon-type  barrow,  §29,  p21. 

card  for  fat  barrow,  §29.  p20. 

card  for  heavy  market  horses,  §37,  po. 

card  for  light  market  horses.  §37.  p4. 

card  for  mutton  type  of  sheep,  §32,  pl8. 

card  for  wool  type  of  sheep,  §32,  pl9. 

cards  in  judging  horses.  Use  of.  §37.  p6. 

cards  in  judging  sheep.  Use  of,  §32.  p20. 

cards  in  swine  judging.  Use  of.  §29,  p!9. 
Selection  of  breeding  mares,  §38,  pll. 


INDEX 


xv 


Selection  of  ram  for  flock,  §34,  p3. 

of  stallions,  §39.  p2. 
Semen  extractor,  §38,  pl9. 
Service.  Care  of  mare  after,  §38.  pl8. 
Care  of  sow  after,  §30,  p9. 
stallions,  Handling  of.  §39,  po. 
Serving  of  mares,  §3S.  pl8. 
Sex  in  horses,  §37,  pl2. 
Shade  for  horse  paddocks.  §35,  p60. 
Shearing  floor.  Sheep,  §34,  p32. 

of  sheep,  §34,  p30. 

of  sheep.  Detailed  operations  in.  §34.  p34. 
Shears.  Hand  and  machine  sheep,  §34,  p32. 
Sheep  against  dogs.  Protection  of,  §34,  pl7. 

Age  of  breeding.  §32.  p32. 

American  Merino,  §31,  p6. 

and  lambs.  Marketing,  §34,  p24. 

as  an  aid  in  maintaining  soil  fertility,  §33,  p2. 

as  farm  scavengers.  §33,  pi. 

barn,  Plan  for  construction  of,  §33,  p7. 

barns.  General  requirements  for,  §33,  po. 

bell,  §33,  p23. 

breeding.  §32,  pp31,  33. . 

breeding  records,  Keeping  of,  §32,  p36. 

Breeds  of,  §31.  p6. 

Catching  of.  §32,  pi. 

Cheviot,  §31,  p30. 

Coarse-wool  breeds  of,  §31,  p36. 

Concentrates  for,  §33,  p35. 

Condition  of  breeding,  §32,  p32. 

Cotswold.  531,  p40. 

Delaine  M.rino,  §31,  plO. 

Detailed  operations  in  shearing  of,  §34,  p34. 

Determining  age  of,  §34,  p62. 

Dipping  of,  §34,  pl8. 

Dipping  outfit  for,  §33,  p20. 

Docking  pincers  for,  §33,  p22. 

Dorset,  §31,  p28. 

Dry  roughage  for,  §33,  p34. 

Feeds  for,  §33,  p2S. 

Fine-wool  breeds  of,  §31,  p6. 

fleece,  §34,  p29. 

fleeces,  Twine  for  tying  of,  §33,  p26. 

for  show  ring,  Training  of,  §32,  po. 

Hampshire,  §31,  p25. 

Handling  of.  §32,  p3. 

Handling   of   flock   on   its   arrival    at   farm, 

§34,  p4. 
herders,  Use  of  dogs  as,  §34,  pl7. 
husbandry.  Importance  of,  §33,  pi. 
judging,  §32.  pi. 
judging,  Procedure  in,  §32,  po. 
Leading  a,  §32,  p4. 
Leicester,  §31,  p37. 
Lincoln,  §31.  p36. 

Market  classes  and  grades  of.  §34,  p25. 
marking,  §33,  pl4. 


Sheep,  Medium-wool  breeds  of,  §31,  pl6. 
Mutton  type  of.  §31,  pp2,  4. 
Oxford  Down,  §31.  p21. 
pens.  Panels  for.  §33,  p20. 
Purchasing  foundation  flock  of,  §34,  pi. 
raising,  Land  adapted  for,  §33,  p3. 
Rambouillet,  §31,  pi 2. 
Recording  of.  §32,  p42. 
Remodeling  of  old  barns  for,  §33.  pl4. 
Score  card  for  mutton  type  of,  §32,  pl8. 
shearing  floor,  §34,  p32. 
shearing  machine,  §33,  p25. 
Shearing  of,  §34,  p30. 
shears,  §33,  p25;  §34,  p32. 
Shipping  of,  §34,  p28. 
Shropshire,  §31,  pl9. 
Southdown,  §31,  pi (5. 
Suffolk,  §31,p32. 
Table  of  classes,  subclasses,  and  grades  of 

§34,  p27. 
that  land  will  maintain,  Number  of,  §33,  p4. 
Throwing  a,  §32,  p3. 
Time  of  year  for  shearing,  §34,  p31. 
Toe  clippers  for.  §33,  p22. 
Types  of,  §31,  pi. 

Use  of  score  cards  in  judging,  §32,  p20. 
Washing  of,  §34,  p20. 
Wool  type  of.  §31,  ppl,  3. 
yards,  §33,  p20. 
Shepherd's  crook,  §33,  p24. 
Shetland  ponies,  §40,  p3. 

pony.  Scale  of  points  for,  §40,  pl2. 
Shipping  crate,  Swine,  §27   p41. 
of  horses,  §39,  p24. 
of  sheep,  §34,  p28. 
Shire  horses,  §36,  p(>.3. 
Shoe  boil,  §37,  p31. 
Shoulder  sweeny,  §37,  p31. 
Show  swine.  Care  of.  §30,  p21. 
Shropshire  scale  of  points,  §32,  p23. 

sheep,  §31,  pl9. 
Sickle  hocks  in  horses,  §37,  pl6. 
Side  bones  in  horses,  §37,  p32. 
Signs  of  pregnancy  in  mares.  §38.  p22. 
of  pregnancy  in  sows.  §30,  pl4. 
of  pregnancy  in  ewes,  §32,  p45. 
Size  and  location  of  horse  paddocks,  §35,  p55. 
Small  Yorkshire  swine,  standard  of  excellence 
of,  §28,  p26. 
Yorkshire  swine,  §28,  p2o. 
Soundness  in  horses,  §37,  p7. 
Southdown  scale  of  points,  §32,  p22. 

sheep.  §31,  pl6. 
Southern-chunk  horses,  §36.  p85. 
Sow  after  service.  Care  of,  §30.  p9. 

Selection  of  pure-bred  brood,  §30.  p6. 
Sows  after  farrowing.  Breeding  of,  §30,  pl6. 


XVI 


INDEX 


Sows  after  pigs  are  weaned,  Management  of, 
§30,  pl7. 
Age  for  breeding  of,  §30,  p8. 
Appearance  of  heat  in,  §30,  p8. 
Care  of,  §30.  pS. 

during  pregnancy,  Exercise  for,  §30,  pl4. 
Feeding  of  brood,  §29,  pi 7. 
for  breeding.  Selection  of,  §30,  p9. 
Gestation  period  in,  §30,  p9. 
Gestation  table  for,  §30,  plO. 
Management  of,  §30,  p8. 
Signs  of  pregnancy  in,  §30,  pl4. 
Spaying  of,  §30,  p25. 
Sterility  in,  §30,  p9. 
Spavin,  Blind,  §37,  p35. 
Bog,  §37,  p36. 
Bone,  §37,  p35. 
Occult,  §37,  p35. 
Spaying  of  sows,  §30,  p25. 
Spillman  swine  house,  §27,  po. 
Splay-footed  horses,  §37,  p21. 
Splints,  §37,  p31. 
Stags,  sheep  subclass,  §34,  p25. 
Stallion,     Length     of     breeding     season     for, 

§39,  p7. 
Stallions,  Advertising  of,  §39,  p8. 
Barns  for,  §35,  p9. 

during  breeding  season.  Care  of,  §39,  pG. 
Handling  of  service.  §39,  po. 
out  of  breeding  season,  Care  of,  §39,  p4. 
Purchasing  of,  §39,  pi. 
Selection  of,  §39,  p2. 
Sterility  in  sows,  §30,  p9. 
Sties.  Swine,  §27,  p29. 
Strange  hogs,  Placing  together,  §30,  p23. 
Style  in  horses.  Judging,  §37,  p20. 
Succulent    feed    for    the    fattening    of     hogs, 
§29,  pl3. 
feeds  for  sheep,  §33,  p28. 
feeds  for  swine,  §29,  po. 
Suffolk  horse,  §36,  p74. 
scale  of  points,  §32,  p21. 
sheep,  §31,  p32. 
Sugar  mules,  §40,  p27. 
Sun  bath  for  young  pigs,  §27,  p29t 
Sweeny  in  horses.  Hip,  §37,  p35. 

Shoulder,  §37,  p31. 
Swine,  Bacon  type  of,  §28,  p3. 
Berkshire,  §28,  p4. 
Bloom  in,  §30,  p21. 
breeding,  §30,  pi. 
breeding  crate,  §27,  p40. 
Breeds  of,  §28,  p4. 
Breeds  of  bacon  type  of,  §28,  p28. 
Breeds  of  lard  type  of,  §28,  p4. 
Care  of  show,  §30,  p21. 
Cheshire,  §28,  p24. 


Swine,  Chester  White,  §28.  plS. 

Classification  of  exhibition,  §29,  pi 8. 

cots,  §27,  pi. 

Duroc -Jersey,  §28,  plo. 

Essex,  §28,  p27. 

feed  room,  §27.  p27. 

feeding.  §29,  pi. 

Feeding  of  breeding,  §29,  pl6. 

Feeding  of.  for  pork  production,  §29,  p9. 

feeding  platform,  §27,  p21. 

feeding  utensils,  §27,  p32. 

feeds,  §29,  p3. 

for     lard     productions.     Feeding     of,     §29, 

P9. 
Hampshire,  §28,  p32. 
house,  Bonham,  §27,  p3. 
house,  Circular,  §27.  p23. 
house.  Cold-climate,  §27,  pl6. 
house,  Coolidge,  §27.  p4. 
house.  General-purpose,  §27,  p7. 
house,  Gregory' farm,  §27,  pl2. 
house.  Hillside,  §27.  p9. 
house     Illinois    Experiment,    Station,     §27, 

pl9. 
house,  Lovejoy,  §27,  pi. 
house.  Mild-climate,  §27,  pl7. 
house.  Spillman,  §27,  po. 
houses.  Double  portable,  §27,  p6. 
houses,  Individual,  §27,  pi. 
houses,  Portable,  §27.  pi. 
houses,  Stationary,  §27.  p7. 
judge,  Qualifications  of,  §29,  pl8. 
judging.  §29,  plS. 

judging,  General  procedure  in,  §29,  p23. 
judging,  Use  of  score  cards  in,  §29,  pl9. 
Lard  type  of,  §28.  p2. 
Large  Yorkshire,  §28,  p28. 
litters.  Marking  of,  §30,  pl8. 
lots.  §27,  p29. 
Mule-foot,  §28,  p21. 
Origin  and  development  of,  §30,  pi. 
pedigrees.  Recording  of,  §30,  p35. 
pens,  §27,  p29. 
Poland-China,  §2S,  p9. 
produce.  Recording  of,  §30,  p2*">. 
Production  of  pure-bred,  §30,  p2. 
Registration  of,  §30,  p29. 
shed,  Brush-covered,  §27,  p26. 
shed,  Open-front.  §27,  p24. 
shipping  crate,  §27,  p41. 
Small  Yorkshire,  §28,  p25. 
sties,  §27.  p29. 
Tamworth,  §28,  p30. 
Transportation  of,  §30,  p22. 
Types  of,  §28,  p2. 
Victoria.  §28,  p27. 
Water  for,  §29,  p8. 


INDEX 


xvii 


Table  for  ewes.  Gestation.  §32,  p37. 
for  mares.  Gestation,  §38,  p23. 

for  sows.  Gestation.  §H(>.  i>M». 

of  classes,  subclasses,  and  grades  of  sheep, 

§34,  p27. 
of  market  classes  and  subclasses  of  horses, 
538,  p78. 
Tamworth  swine,  §28,  p30. 

standard  of  excellence,  §28,  p32. 
Teeth    in   horses.    Order    of    appearance    of, 

§37.  p41. 
Temperament  in  horses.  Judging,  §37,  p22. 

of  mules,  §40,  p21. 
Tendon,  Bowed,  §37,  p32. 
Thoroughbred  horses,  §30,  pl3. 
Thoroughpin,  §37,  p36. 
Three-gaited  saddle  horses,  §36,  plO'J. 
Throwing  a  sheep,  §32,  p3. 
Throw-outs  sheep  class,  §34,  p2G. 
Thrush,  §37,  p33. 

Time  for  breeding  of  ewes,  §32,  p32. 
Toe  clippers  for  sheep,  §33,  p22. 
Trainint;  of  balky  horses,  §39,  p32. 
colts,  §39,  pp25,  27,  29,  31. 
of  halter-pulling  horses,  §39,  p32. 
of  sheep  for  show  ring,  §32,  po. 
of  vicious  horses,  §39,  p32. 
Transportation  of  swine,  §30,  p22. 
Trocar  for  sheep,  §33,  p24. 
Trotter  horse,  American,  §36.  p29. 
Tusks  of  young  pigs,  Removal  of,  §30,  pl8. 
Twine  for  tying  fleeces,  §33,  p26. 
Types  of  horses,  §36,  p5. 
of  sheep,  §31,  pi. 
of  swine,  §28,  p2. 

U 
Unsoundness,     Examination     of     horses     for, 

§37,  p27. 
Unweaned  pigs,  Ration  for,  §29,  pl2. 
Uses  of  asses,  §40,  pl9. 


Vat  for  swine,  Dipping,  §27,  p36. 
Ventilation  for  horse  barns,  §35,  p45. 
Vicious  horses,  Training  of,  §39,  p32. 
Victoria  swine,  §28,  p27. 

W 

Wagon-horse  class,  §36,  p85. 

Wallow,  Hog,  §27,  p37. 

Washing  of  sheep,  §34,  p20. 

Waste  wool,  §34,  p29. 

Water  supply  for  horse  paddocks,  §35,  p59. 

Watering  of  draft  horses,  §38,  p6. 

of  driving  horses,  §38,  p9. 

of  saddle  horses,  §38,  p9. 
Weaning  of  lambs,  §34,  pll. 

Rations  for  pigs  after,  §29,  pl2. 
Welsh  pony,  §40,  pi 4. 
Wethers,  sheep  subclass,  §34,  p25. 
Wheat  screenings  as  sheep  feed,  §33,  p37. 
Wind  gall,  §37,  p32. 

in  horses,  Examination  of,  §37,  p39. 
Wool  board,  §33,  p26. 

box,  §33,  p26. 

clip,  §34,  p29. 

Marketing  of,  §34,  p42. 

production,  §34,  p29. 

table,  §33,  p26. 

type  of  sheep,  §31.  ppl,  3. 

type  of  sheep,  Score  card  for,  §32,  pl9. 

Waste,  §34,  p29. 
Wools,  Carpet,  §34,  p29. 

Clothing,  §34,  p29. 

Combing,  §34,  p29. 


Yearlings,  sheep  subclass,  §34,  p25. 
Yorkshire  Coach  horse,  §36,  p50. 

swine,  Large.  §28,  p28. 

swine,  Small,  §28,  p25. 
Young  pigs,  Sun  bath  for,  §27,  p29. 


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